AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT AND BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/RECREATION ON CANADIAN YOUTH-AT-RISK: JOINT INITIATIVE OF THE INTER-PROVINCIAL SPORT AND RECREATION COUNCIL, THE FITNESS DIRECTORATE OF HEALTH CANADA, AND THE CANADIAN PARKS/RECREATION ASSOCIATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Research Team iv

Acknowledgements v

Preface vi

1. Executive Summary 1

2. Project Overview and Methodology 4

2.1 Overview of project 4

2.2 Research methodology 5

3. Review of the Literature 9

3.1 Historical perspective 9

3.2 Definition of concepts and terms 10

3.3 Factors identifying youth-at-risk 13

3.4 Current situation 18

3.41 Magnitude of the problem 18

3.42 Summary of Trends and Statistics 24

3.43 Government policies/initiatives 26

3.5 Potential impact of physical activity/recreation 36

3.51 Self-related issues 36

3.52 Family-related issues 40

3.53 Peer-related issues 40

3.54 School-related issues 41

3.55 Community-related issues 42

3.6 Summary 47

4. Focus Group Results 48

4.1 Intra-group results 48

4.11 Administrators/Policy Makers 48

4.12 Frontline Workers 56

4.13 Parents 65

4.14 Youth 69

4.2 Inter-group comparison 74

4.3 Aboriginal issues 80

4.4 Other cultural issues 85

4.5 Summary 87

5. Summary of Current Canadian Initiatives 88

5.1 Results of mail-out survey on program initiatives 88

5.2 Extent of current programming for youth-at-risk 88

5.3 Model programs 89

5.4 Factors related to program success 98

5.5 Factors related to program failure 99

6. Limitations of Project 100

7. Analysis of Findings 103

7.1 Urban vs rural 103

7.2 Comparison of different stages on youth-at-risk

continuum 104

7.3 Gender related issues 104

7.4 Aboriginal issues 105

7.5 Summary of findings 106

8. Recommendations 108

9. References 115

10. Appendices 128

A. Glossary of Terms 129

B. Focus Group Participant Characteristics 131

C. Focus Group Participant Summary 134

D. Sample of Questions Discussed at Focus Group

Meetings 137

E. Potential Partners for Networking 141RESEARCH TEAM

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS:

Dr. Ian Reid, Ph.D. Dr. Mark Tremblay, Ph.D.

Faculty of Phys. Ed. and Recreation, Faculty of Phys. Ed. and Recreation,

University of New Brunswick, University of New Brunswick,

P.O. Box 4400, P.O. Box 4400,

Fredericton, New Brunswick Fredericton, New Brunswick

E3B 5A3 E3B 5A3

506-453-4575 (phone) 506-453-4579 (phone)

506-453-3511 (fax) 506-453-3511

RESEARCH ASSOCIATES:

Mr. René Pelletier, B.P.E. Ms. Stacey McKay, M.Sc.

New Brunswick Department of Faculty of Physical Education

Municipalities, Culture, and Housing and Recreation

372 Water St. 2nd Floor, Suite 202, University of New Brunswick

Chatham, New Brunswick Fredericton, New Brunswick

E1N 1B6 E3B 5A3

506-778-6688 (phone) 506-453-4575 (phone)

506-778-6693 (fax) 506-453-3511 (fax)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The successful completion of this project required the commitment and cooperation of several people. The steering committee for this project, especially Mike Arthur (Chair), Diana Smith, Tim Weir, and Judy Sutcliff, were particularly helpful in providing direction and support as necessary throughout the project. The essential support of each provincial ISRC representative, and in turn their network of contacts, made the project logistically feasible. To all of the focus group participants, and everyone who answered our mail-out survey, without you the report would be meaningless. To all of these individuals we extend a sincere thank you, and we share the credit of this work with you.

To our colleagues, who covered for us while we were busy working on this project, thank you. A special thanks is also extended to Dr. Terry Haggerty, Dean of the Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, and Jim Morell, Assistant Deputy Minister (New Brunswick Department of Municipalities, Culture and Housing), for providing the administrative and operational support necessary to complete this report. Thank you to Gabrielle Cameron and Molly Demma for their diligent assistance throughout the project.

Finally, and most importantly, thank you to our families and friends who supported us during our extended travel, and tolerated us during the long hours spent in preparing this document.

We hope that the support of everyone involved in this project has ensured a report that will provide direction for those interested in the effects of physical activity and recreation on the behaviour of Canadian youth.

PREFACE

During the preparation of this foundation document, it became apparent that some individuals are sensitive to the terminology surrounding the issues presented and discussed in this report. The research team appreciates and acknowledges these concerns and sensitivities. Nevertheless, because of the nearly universal understanding of the term youth-at-risk, and because the vast majority of the concerned individuals that were contacted were comfortable with the term and used the term in clinical discussions, we have used this term periodically throughout the report. Other terminology or expressions that may be offensive to some have been operationally defined and the definitions included in a glossary of terms. The intent of this report is to accurately and concisely identify the major issues related to physical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk. To achieve this, dictionary definitions of terms are often adhered to. It is hoped that the terminology and expressions used in this report will not offend anyone. This report was written with sincere interest and concern for the youth it addresses and the role that physical activity/recreation plays in their development. It is hoped that the reader shares this concern.

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The positive relationship between physical activity/recreation and a reduction in risk factors for youth has extensive historical roots. The definition of youth-at-risk has evolved over the years and may be conceptualized on a continuum ranging from low risk to chronic deviance. Many factors predispose youth to behavioural risk factors. These predisposing factors include variables related to the individual (self), family, peers, school, and community. The current situation in Canada suggests that there is need for concern about youth-at-risk, and that efforts to minimize risk factors for youth will provide diverse personal and social benefits. Governments have recognized this area of need and have many programs in place to address issues related to youth-at-risk. Unfortunately, there appears to be little consistency in, or coordination of, policies and programs across Canada. Strategies involving physical activity/recreation appear particularly promising in minimizing risk factors for youth. Physical activity/recreation participation can provide positive benefits related to psychological health, physical health, familial interaction, peer influence, academic performance, community development, and other lifestyle behaviours. The documentation supporting the enormous potential of physical activity/recreations programs to positively influence youth-at-risk cannot be ignored. As Active Living proponents try to instill an appreciation for regular physical activity in all Canadians, youth-at-risk may stand to benefit the most.

The 465 participants from the 64 focus group meetings provided invaluable input into this research. All participants provided unique insight. The most striking observation from the focus group results was the degree of consistency between all focus groups. The administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, parents, and youth consistently identified the same major issues, with few contradictions. There was a range of definitions of the youth-at-risk throughout the focus group participants, but in general, there was an understanding that youth-at-risk were those youth who demonstrated characteristics consistent with undesirable behaviours. A significant group of participants, particularly the parents and youth, defined youth-at-risk as those already exhibiting deviant behaviour. Though some focus group participants had a narrow view of physical activity/recreation, most conceptualized the terms very broadly and incorporating a wide range of leisure pursuits. Throughout the focus groups it became increasingly apparent that there is incredible potential for physical activity and recreation initiatives to positively impact on youth-at-risk. Physical activity/recreation can help youth-at-risk by improving self-esteem, providing positive role models, teaching teamwork and social skills, promoting self-confidence, providing a sense of belonging, reducing risk factors for disease, giving youth something constructive to do, providing a means of releasing stress, promoting positive morals and values, teaching cognitive, leadership and life skills, providing an opportunity for racial integration, enhancing cultural awareness, providing a sense of community, fostering family support, and promoting the wellness of youth. Many organizations are currently providing programs or services directly or indirectly impacting on youth-at-risk. There was a general consensus that these efforts need to be better coordinated and advertised. Successful programs need to have youth spearheading the initiative. Programs also need to be flexible, accommodating, inexpensive (or free), with goodleadership and community support. Programs directed towards youth-at-risk should be nonthreatening, emphasizing participation, and not competition. Outdoor adventure programming was believed to be appropriate for youth-at-risk. Many fiscal, logistical, and societal barriers/constraints make it difficult to provide the programs and services believed to be necessary for youth-at-risk. The need to empower youth, provide good leadership, establish parental support, provide increased government support, develop partnerships, create youth centres, reform current programming initiatives to reflect the needs of youth-at-risk, and continue research were repeatedly mentioned as the primary issues. The need to approach youth-at-risk issues holistically was also a pervasive attitude. It was felt that physical activity and recreation can provide both prevention and intervention functions.

In general, the Aboriginal issues were consistent with the major issues facing all at-risk youth. Specific issues of concern in native communities centered around discrimination, availability of leadership, poor parenting, lack of resources (human and financial), isolation, cultural identity, commitment to youth, and partnership development. Other non-native cultural issues include discrimination, communication difficulties (language barriers), gender specific limitations because of cultural traditions, and the lack of culturally specific programming. In general, it was felt that the focus group process provided the most comprehensive and insightful information gathered during this research.

Ninety-six responses to a mail-out survey requesting information on physical activity/recreation programs or initiatives directed towards youth-at-risk were received as of the writing of this report. The majority of responses described successful programs and provided some details surrounding the initiative. It became evident that many excellent programs are currently in place around the country. Most programs are local initiatives, though some campaigns, like Vitality (Health Canada), are national in scope. The indicators of successful program initiatives mentioned by the survey respondents were similar to those identified through the literature review and focus group meetings.

As with all research, there are limitations to the findings. Because this study was not exhaustive, and because focus group participants were not randomly selected, and because of the project constraints (time, human resources, money), caution must be used when interpreting the conclusions and recommendations. The information summarized in this report may not necessarily represent the broader population.

For the most part, there were no significant differences between the issues facing urban youth compared to rural youth. Some issues that were raised in this regard suggested that rural youth have less facilities and services available, more transportation problems, and a community more willing to accept responsibility for the problems of youth.

The most significant differences in issues related to youth at the various stages of the youth-at-risk continuum center around programming, leadership experience, and youth-leader interaction. Logistical constraints associated with the focus groups limited any conclusions from being made from that research method. More research is needed to address the specific needs of youth withvarying degrees of behavioural problems.

Encouraging research on the potential impact of physical activity/recreation on female youth exists. In general, females appear to derive similar benefits to males. Four main gender bias issues did emerge from the focus groups. These issues related to programming, leadership, parenting, and risk.

There is little empirical research related to aboriginal youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation. Basically, the issues facing aboriginal youth are the same as those facing all youth. Notable exceptions are discrimination and cultural issues. The majority of current initiatives gathered during this research were from western Canada.

Several recommendations arose out of the information gathered for this report. The recommendations included suggestions on youth issues, community development, leadership development, information networking/communication, collaborative policy development, specific programming, evaluation measures, future research, and native issues.

It is hoped that this "Foundation Document" will provide a stimulus for future efforts related to physical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk.

2. PROJECT OVERVIEW AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT

Identifying the role of physical activity and recreation in reducing or mitigating lifestyle and behavioural risks for youth is a growing area of interest in academic, government and community sectors, and at the personal/family level. Efforts to identify and evaluate the relationship between physical activity/recreation and behaviours of youth that place them at risk are ongoing. Because this issue has such diverse social implications, and because of the enormous potential of physical activity and recreation programs to positively impact on these social issues, more work is needed to elucidate the extent of the relationship between physical activity/recreation and behaviours that place youth at risk.

To address this need, the Interprovincial Sport and Recreation Council (ISRC), the Fitness Directorate of Health Canada, and the Canadian Parks and Recreation Association (CPRA) collaboratively sponsored this analysis on the impact and benefits of physical activity/recreation on Canadian youth-at-risk. Researchers in the Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation at the University of New Brunswick performed the research and prepared this report. The project encompassed a literature review, focus group analysis, and a summary of initiatives taking place across the country in this area. Each of the three phases of the project were equally important in contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the current situation in Canada in this regard.

The specific goals of the project included:

Goal One: Define "youth-at-risk" through the development of a continuum.

Goal Two: Document and critique the literature and research evidence regarding the contribution which physical activity/recreation can make to the prevention, intervention, and reduction of risk factors for youth.

Goal Three: Explore the realities and myths of youth-at-risk in Canada and identify key issues from both an adult and youth perspective; and investigate the differences in issues between urban and rural youth.

Goal Four: Summarize current initiatives, policies, programs, and innovations at the municipal, provincial/territorial and national levels (government and non-government agencies) in the area of physical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk.

Goal Five: Investigate youth, parent, frontline workers' and administrators' views on the potential impact and benefits of physical activity/recreation on youth in Canada. In addition, investigate and identify the concerns and programs of selected populations, particularly Aboriginal groups.

Goal Six:Document all research findings. Based on these findings, make recommendations for future research, information networking, collaborative policy development, specific programming, and further evaluation of services.

The research and writing of this project took place between August and December, 1994. It is believed that the information presented in this report provides a thorough and comprehensive evaluation of the potential impact and benefits of physical activity and recreation on Canadian youth, particularly those considered to be "at risk".

2.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Literature Search and Review

A comprehensive search for relevant academic and professional literature was performed throughout the duration of this project. Contemporary electronic search technologies were employed to facilitate a complete search of available information. Sport Discus (SIRC) and Medline databases were used, in addition to manual identification of resources, to search for relevant literature. Additionally, a network of colleagues from around the country assisted in ensuring that a comprehensive search was completed. An enormous volume of literature was collected and reviewed. Selected research and scholarly papers from this collection are synthesized and presented in the review of the literature section of this report. Though the review of literature included in this report is brief relative to the information collected, it is believed that it documents and references the primary issues related to this project.

Focus Groups

Sixty-four focus group meetings were held across Canada in the process of gathering information about the issues and programs related to physical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk. These meetings allowed information to be gathered from each province and territory (14 locations; one in each province/territory except Quebec and Ontario where two locations were identified) and from several different target groups. At each selected location four focus group meetings were held. These meetings specifically targeted: (1) administrators/policy makers, (2) front-line workers, (3) youth (for the purposes of the focus groups, youth were limited to those 14-18 years of age), and (4) parents. Eight additional focus groups were scheduled for Native specific populations. The youth and parent groups were further subdivided to represent youth at varying stages on the youth-at-risk continuum (see Figure 1 in section 3.2). This stratification of parents and youth was also randomized across the provinces. In general, both genders were equally represented in the focus groups (see Appendix C for a more detailed breakdown of the focus group participants).

Each province and territory was randomly designated as having a rural or urban focus. After this randomization was complete, the ISRC representative from each province was sent an Operations Manual which clarified the characteristics of the focus group participants needed in each specific location, and the logistics of the focus group preparation. All of the participants for each of the four focus groups scheduled at each location came from the designated geographical location. Thesimple definitions used to define rural and urban were:

URBAN -A locality with over 100 000 inhabitants whose main labour market is employed within the urbanized core; or the largest major centre in the geographical area.

RURAL -A locality with fewer than 20 000 inhabitants who are primarily engaged in agricultural activities as a livelihood.

The ISRC provincial representative, or designate, functioned as the logistical coordinator and local host of the focus groups scheduled for their province. Each local coordinator was responsible for selecting the exact geographical location based on whether they had been designated as urban or rural. The final locations were selected based on local professional contacts, availability of meeting rooms, cooperation of local resource personnel, and administrative logistics. The local hosts were given the responsibility of identifying eight participants for each focus group based on the descriptions and examples provided to them (Appendix B). By comparing Appendix B with Appendix C it can be seen that the local hosts did an admirable job of soliciting appropriate participants for the focus groups. A debriefing session was held with each local host during the visit to receive feedback on the research process, and to discuss any complications or issues that arose from the delegated responsibilities.

The focus group meetings were audio-taped to facilitate recall and allow the meetings to be reviewed. First names only were used during all discussions, ensuring the anonymity of the volunteer participants. Prior to the start of the meeting, participants were asked to give consent to the audio recording of the meeting. In every case, verbal consent was obtained. Before starting the tapes, the participants were informed of the purpose of the meeting; that their identity would remain anonymous; that their participation was voluntary; and that they were free to withdraw from the meeting at any time, without consequence. Each focus group meeting lasted approximately two hours. The purpose of the focus groups differed slightly between the four groups (administrators, frontline workers, parents and youth), however, in general they were designed to obtain the following information: a definition of youth-at-risk; identify policy development related to youth-at-risk; identify and explore various physical activity/recreation program initiatives for youth-at-risk; to identify the variables that determine success in a program; to identify the issues, constraints, and needs of youth-at-risk in terms of physical activity/recreation; to identify program delivery issues; identify cooperative ventures; solicit suggestions for future initiatives; identify myths associated with youth-at-risk issues; identify physical activity/recreation patterns among the various family groups; and, establish the value system associated with physical activity/recreation amongst families. A more complete listing of the questions/issues raised in each focus group is attached in Appendix D.

An outline of the focus group stratification is presented in Table 1. In summary, the focus groups were stratified to allow for comparisons to be made between:

Table 1: Summary of focus group meetings - distribution and stratification.

¹ Refer to Appendix B for an explanation of the codes. -different concerned groups (administrators, frontline workers, youth, parents)

- rural and urban populations

- Native and non-Native populations

- youth at different stages on the youth-at-risk continuum

- genders

A complete summary of focus group participants is presented in Appendix C.

Current Initiatives

A letter requesting specific information on physical activity/recreation programs or initiatives designed to address the needs of youth-at-risk was distributed nationally. This vehicle was also used to solicit program initiatives specifically directed at ethnic minorities. Respondents were asked to forward any reports or materials that described and evaluated the programs, to assist in identifying common indicators of success or failure. The survey was initially distributed to the provincial ISRC representatives, the administrators and frontline workers after the focus group meetings, the participants at a regional recreation conference in Fredericton, New Brunswick, and to all of the affiliated members of the CPRA. This process of dissemination resulted in an original distribution of about 315 surveys. The survey was designed to provide for further distribution through a pyramid process. As of the writing of this report, only 32 of the original 315 responded, however, an additional 64 responses were received through the pyramid effect. Program initiatives were also obtained through the literature review process, and through the focus group meetings. A summary of the current initiatives gathered through these processes is included in chapter 5.

A specific request was also sent to the provincial ISRC representatives concerning specific provincial government policies/programs related to physical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk. These findings are presented in section 3.43.

In summary, the information necessary to address the specific goals outlined in the previous section was obtained through the three primary methodologies summarized here. The specific findings from each of these methodologies are presented in the remainder of this report.

3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

3.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The notion that recreation services are a valuable tool in preventing youth problems, and in reducing substance abuse and other antisocial behaviours (Ryan, 1991), has been part of the field's conventional wisdom since the earliest days of the playground and recreation movement in Canada and the United States.

The recreation movement, known in its early years as the play movement, began in the late 1800's as a response to problems created by immigration, urbanization, and the industrialization of American cities (McFarland, 1970; Violas, 1978; Knapp, 1972). Violas (1978) summarized the events stimulating the movement's evolution by stating:

No previous generation had evidenced so great a concern for the play activities of its youth. Intellectuals developed theories to explain the psychological, physiological, and sociological bases of play. Municipal playgrounds were constructed in every city. A new vocation, the play leader, emerged, and a national organization, the Playground and Recreation Association of America appeared in 1904 to organize, standardize, and promote recreation. Public school programs and architecture were modified to accommodate the new interest in the educational use of child's play. A common theme in the recreation movement was the faith that play encouraged socially productive attitudes, values and habits. (p. 67)

The underlying presumption that social outcomes were influenced by recreation, and that activity could be utilized as a control mechanism for adolescent behaviour was evident in many of the early theories of play and playground/recreation initiatives. This attitude formed the early theoretical and practical basis for the link between recreation and the problems of youth.

Shortly after their formation in 1903, the Canadian National Council of Women began to consider the issue of youth and the potential positive influence that could be exerted on Canada's youth through play and recreation (Searle & Brayley, 1993). Considered to be the early driving force behind the playground movement, and the subsequent recreation movement in Canada (McFarland, 1970), the National Council of Women believed that recreation and play were appropriate methods to facilitate the development of children, and necessary for their health, strength, and moral character. This social welfare role of play and recreation was promoted extensively by the National Council of Women across Canada through their many local affiliate associations from the late 1890's through to the mid 1940's. The preventive role of play and recreation formed the basis of the Council's Committee on Vacation Schools and Supervised Playgrounds. Miss Mabel Peters, who chaired the committee from 1903 until 1913 introduced the motion to create the committee. As a preamble to the motion she noted that:

Statistics prove that juvenile arrests increase 60% in July and August, and accidents to children during these months in almost equal proportion. They are without legitimate pastimes or playthings, and a curbstone rest is neither recreation or enjoyable. The vacation school (play and recreation) meets the evils of these conditions and overcomes them (National Council of Women, 1903).

The philosophy that recreation and physical activity could act as prevention for youth problems could also be seen in public newspapers in the early 1900's. An example of this is an article in the July 19th, 1944 issue of Edmonton's The Bulletin titled "Supervised Playgrounds":

They (incidents of vandalism) represent nothing but over exuberance and no opportunity to work it off in wholesome and properly directed play...And half the mischief into which children get is the result of exactly the same thing--no adequate facilities for safe and constructive play.

This same line of reasoning was used in the original motion that resulted in the formation of Edmonton's first recreation commission: "whereas most juvenile delinquency can be traced to lack of facilities and proper use of youthful energies" (Edmonton City Council, 1944).

Many of Canada's first public parks were also rooted in the concept that parks and play areas were mechanisms of social reform. Wright (1984) has labelled the development of Canada's public parks from 1900 to 1930 as the Reform Park Movement. The purpose of these early playgrounds and organized recreation was not for play, or child development, but to preserve and spread the socially accepted values and culture of the day, and " to influence the lives of the menacing populations". Play and recreation were used to "indoctrinate poor children and mould their attitudes" and "to inoculate in the children an appreciation of existing social order and to make them like-minded junior citizens" (Wright, 1984, p. 56). The reform park was not so much a substitute for earlier park designs and functions, but as a substitute for the street.

Research on how recreation might reduce youth related problems dates back to at least 1918. Thurston (1918) concluded that delinquency was the result of misused leisure time. He stated that "recreation at its best prohibits delinquency by providing healthful activities, developing social relationships, and promoting the idea that success is the result of one's own efforts" (Jordan, 1991, p. 366). It is with similar assertions that studies in the area of youth-at-risk are conducted in the 1990's.

3.2 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Youth-at-Risk Continuum

"Youth-at-Risk" can best be described as a continuum ranging from low risk to chronic deviance. The "Youth-at-Risk Continuum" is presented in a "funnel" format to show that a relatively large number of youth are at-risk, fewer of these individuals engage in deviant behaviour, and aproportion of those become labelled as deviants (McKay, 1994).

The age of "youth" has been operationally defined in a variety of ways throughout the literature. Research begins to address this population at 5-8 years (Feldman et al., 1983; Greenwood, 1992; Roundtree et al., 1993) and continues until the 18-21 year-old range (Warr, 1993; Orcutt, 1984). In most cases, Youth Secretariats will even include those up to the age of 24 years. Although an agreed upon definition of youth remains elusive in the literature, the majority of empirical research has concentrated on youth attending high school, ages 14-18 years (McGiboney & Carter, 1988; Iso-Ahola & Crowely, 1991; Sides, 1992; Wasson, 1981;).

Figure 1: "Youth-at-Risk" continuum (Adapted from McKay, 1994).

Category 1: Youth-at-Risk

Theoretically, "at-risk" youth, the first stage of the continuum, include all youth from conception to adulthood. However, as youth demonstrate more risk factors, they gravitate towards the second stage of the continuum, deviant behaviour. Together, these two stages constitute the youth-at-risk category.

Stage 1: At-Risk. A number of factors predispose youth to be considered at-risk. These variables centre around socioeconomic factors, environmental conditions, peer association, family interaction, and behavioural problems. According to the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, some of these factors include living in a high-crime or low income area, single parent or dysfunctional families, and lack of a responsible positive adult role model (Pizor, 1992).

Stage 2: Deviant Behaviour. Youth-at-risk advance along the continuum when they engage in, or exhibit, deviant behaviour such as substance abuse, promiscuity, dropping out of school, running away from home, gang involvement, unlawful activity, and depression. These behaviours are considered the next level of risk factors; one step beyond the predisposing factors which were present in the at-risk stage. Deviant behaviours are those actions which conflict with society's norms (Hirschi, 1969). At this stage on the continuum, the actions have not been identified by social agents (i.e.; education system, justice system, health and community services); therefore, these youth have not been labelled as deviant and intervention efforts or treatment for their behaviour have not been initiated.

Category 2: Deviance

Deviance is behaviour that will result in corrective actions by agents of the larger society, if it is detected (Hirschi, 1969). Once identified, individuals who commit deviant behaviours (Stage 2 on the continuum) enter the deviance category. The person in need of supervision (PINS) is the earliest stage of this category. It represents a stage beyond deviant behaviour since it is the point of entry into the established social system when the behaviour becomes subject to intervention measures. Deviance is divided into three stages reflecting the seriousness of the behaviours exhibited by youth.

Stage 3: Persons in Need of Supervision (PINS). PINS are youth who enter the established social system as a result of complaints by parents, health or school authorities, or through arrests for less serious crimes. This identification is based on the detection of one behaviour risk factor, whether it be conduct problems at home or in school, running away from home, depression, chronic truancy, vandalism, or shoplifting.

Stage 4: Deviants. Deviants are youth who exhibit multiple behaviour risk factors. Because their problems are compounded, intervention efforts must be forthcoming from multiple source agencies.

Stage 5: Chronic Deviants. Chronic deviants are those individuals who not only exhibit multiple risk factors, but the frequency and seriousness of the behaviours have escalated. Youth at this point on the continuum have demonstrated combinations of the following risk factors identified by the literature: serious criminal activity, suicide attempts, alcohol/drug addiction, school dropout, homelessness, gang involvement, and unsafe sexual activity (prostitution/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)). In the justice system, these adolescents are referred to as "hard core" delinquents or "no-hopers" by officials (Pizor, 1992).

Recreation/Physical Activity

Recreation is defined as being all those things that a person or group chooses to do in order to make their leisure time more interesting, more enjoyable, and more personally satisfying (Fitness Canada, 1987). Physical activity on the other hand comprises any body movement produced by the skeletal muscles that results in a substantial increase over the resting energy expenditure (Bouchard et al., 1993).

A more comprehensive list of definitions can be found in the Glossary of Terms in Appendix A.

3.3 FACTORS IDENTIFYING YOUTH-AT-RISK

A number of predictor variables that can be used to help identify youth-at-risk, and understand the predisposing factors that influence the youth, have been discussed in the related literature. The predictor variables presented in this section help to explain a youth's predisposition to problem behaviour. Whether or not a youth engages in unacceptable or deviant behaviour depends on the interaction and dynamics of these variables, how resilient the youth is, and the type of support/intervention the youth receives from family, friends, and the community (McKay, 1994). The predictor variables can be divided according to the five elements of a youth's life: the individual youth (self), family, peers, school, and community. Table 2 provides the operational definitions of the predictor variables under these five headings (adapted from McKay, 1994).

Several individual “problem characteristics of youth-at-risk have been developed: low self-esteem and image, poorly developed impulse control, poorly developed modulation of emotion, relationship deficits; family pain and strain; special learning disabilities, and limited play skills (Whittaker, 1979). Low self-esteem makes youth easy prey to negative peer pressure. Rather than seeing themselves as failures , according to adult standards, youth appear to find “success” through possible criminal activity or group behaviours which tend to be self-destructive to the individual in the group. This might be seen in groups where youth drink themselves into oblivion, or where youth who exhibit the most destructive behaviour towards property are seen as “wonderful role models” to the new youth in town. Youth with poorly developed modulation of emotion are characterized by inappropriate emotional responses to various situations. Feelings of sadness or depression result in horrendous displays of rage, and often youth have no idea of how to respond to the “good” feelings they have, when other people show they care, or when good things happen in their lives. Many youth are at-risk for they display relationship deficits. Due to past traumatic events they become very resistant to any form of relationship or bonding. We have all, most likely, been impacted by these behaviours, by youth with whom we can not interact, or who respond badly to our attempts at forming a relationship. Youth-at-risk also display a significant deficit in play skills. A lack of play skills often results in a focusing in on one or two activities or games and a lack of willingness to attempt other activities in which they lack basic play skills. It may not be the lure of new or different games which capture youth, but rather the fear of experiencing new ordifferent games or activities. If these youth are somehow drawn into other games, where their skills are limited, failure can easily result, thus again lowering the already damaged self-image.

Although "social influences outside the family appear as stronger contributors to delinquency, functionalists have suggested that the family plays an active role in socializing youths to deviant behaviours such as violence, through supervision and discipline practices, and modelling and reinforcement of antisocial behaviour" (Fagan & Wexler, 1987, p. 643). This interaction process, and its influence on behavioural problems, has been studied quite extensively. Findings have shown that the type of interaction that takes place in the home is even more important than the family structure (Cernkovich & Giordano, 1987). Dimensions of interaction include control and supervision, identity support, caring and trust, intimate communication, instrumental communication, parental disapproval of peers, and conflict.

The effects of the interaction dimensions have been found to be similar across different types of family structure, including both-parent, mother-only, and mother/step-father homes (Cernkovich & Giordano, 1987). This is consistent with findings emerging from research on broken homes which showed that the direct relationship between split homes and delinquency was insignificant (Voorhis et al., 1988). However, factors such as broken homes, parental criminality and drunkenness, and crowding indirectly affect deviance by influencing the family interaction process (Laub & Sampson, 1988). In addition, there is evidence that mother's supervision, styles of discipline and attachment are the most important predictors of serious and persistent deviance (Laub & Sampson, 1988).

Table 2: Operational definitions of predictor variables.

VARIABLE DEFINITION

YOUTH

Self-EsteemRefers to an individual's assessment of self-worth.

Self-Image refers to how people srr themselves

ExtroversionTaking pleasure more in what happens outside oneself than in own emotions or states of mind.

CreativityAbility to create or make something by applying the imagination in an artistic fashion.

CuriosityEagerness to know and tendency to inquire about things.

DistractibilityRefers to an individual's lack of ability to concentrate on tasks.

IndependenceThe quality or state of being free from the authority, control, or influence of others.

Intelligent BehaviourThe ability to perceive logical relationships and use one's knowledge to solve problems and respond with appropriate actions.

Task OrientationAbility to concentrate on a task and not be diverted until its completion.

ConsiderationThe tendency to be careful not to hurt the feelings of others or cause inconvenience to them.

HostilityRefers to the antagonism and unfriendliness expressed by individuals.

DependenceThe reliance on another for material or emotional support.

IntroversionAn inclination or tendency toward being interested more in oneself and own mental or emotional processes than in outside events.

Sense of ExcitementRefers to the need for thrills, kicks, and challenges expressed by adolescents.

FAMILY

PovertyThe condition or quality of being poor; deficiency in or inadequacy supply of something.

UnemploymentThe state of being unable to secure paid employment.

Inadequate EducationParents have minimal education; usually did not complete high school.

Socioeconomic StatusThe relative prestige of the father's, mother's or guardian's occupation.

Control and SupervisionThe extent to which parents monitor the behaviour of their children.

Table 2 continued.

Identity SupportThe belief that parents respect, accept, and support the youth for what he is.

Caring and TrustDegree of intimacy of the relationship between parents and child.

Intimate CommunicationThe sharing of private thoughts and feelings.

Instrumental CommunicationRefers to the sharing of thoughts and feelings pertaining to everyday activities and interactions.

Disapproval of PeersThe negative evaluation of adolescents' friends by parents.

ConflictThe extent to which parents and adolescents have arguments or disagreements with one another.

Family StructureRefers to whether or not there is an intact home (both biological parents are present) or a broken home whereby one or both parents are absent through divorce, death, desertion, separation or prolonged institutional confinement.

Family SatisfactionPerceived well-being and happiness with family relations.

Family StabilityImplies relational continuity and a reduction in the probabilities for marital separation and divorce.

Time Spent TalkingRefers to the amount of time children and parents spend engaging in quality conversation.

Sex Role AttitudesAn individual's attitudes about family roles of men and women.

Willingness to Help at HomeRefers to the attitude children express in relation to doing household chores.

Style of DisciplineRefers to the reward and punishment practices of the parents.

Parent-Child AttachmentRefers to displays of close association and emotional bonding between parent and child, and expressions of admiration for the parent.

Mother's SupervisionThe degree to which the mother provides suitable or fair supervision, or made arrangements for suitable supervision over the child's activities at home or in the neighbourhood.

Maternal/Paternal InteractionRefers to the child-rearing practices of a family structure, family conflict, esteem of each parent for the other, parental supervision and disciplinary characteristics, parental warmth, self-confidence, role, and aggressiveness.

AbuseRefers to the verbal, emotional, physical, and sexual mistreatment inflicted by parents, guardians, sibling, or extended family.

PEERS

Attachment to Deviant PeersThe extent to which the adolescent feels emotionally close to and respect peers.

Table 2 continued.

Group CompositionRefers to the mixture of antisocial and prosocial youth in the peer group.

Time Spent with Deviant PeersThe amount of contact between the adolescent and delinquent peers.

Behaviour Patterns of PeersThe extent to which peers present definitions favourable to delinquency, model delinquent behaviour, and reinforce delinquency.

Peer StatusAn individual's perception of his/her position in the school with respect to the degree of deference or popularity accorded to him/her.

Exposure to DropoutsAssociation with individuals who leave school for any reason before graduation or completion of a program of studies.

Perceived PopularityIndividuals' judgement about their popularity as well as how they compare their own popularity with others.

Deviant AssociatesThe reported activities and attitudes relative to delinquent behaviour of an individual's best friends.

Exposure to Delinquent PeersThe number of delinquent peers within an individual's immediate circle of friends.

Importance of Peer RelationsImportance that individuals place on activities with peers.

Loyalty to PeersRefers to commitment individuals feel toward their own particular friends.

SCHOOL

Academic AchievementAverage scores on reading, vocabulary, and mathematic cognitive achievement tests and the grade point average computed from classes attended by the student.

COMMUNITY

Poor HousingLack of adequate and appropriate shelter.

High Crime AreaRefers to the proportionally high number of crimes being committed and delinquents living in a geographic region.

Overcrowded AreaThe number of people residing in an area as calculated per square mile.McCord (1991) found that a mother's competence and family expectations also influenced the likelihood of delinquency. A father's interactions with the family were somewhat less important. However, "fathers who interact with their wives in ways exhibiting high mutual esteem, who are not highly aggressive, and who generally get along well with their wives provide models for socialized behaviour. Conversely, fathers who undermine their wives, who fight with the family, and who are aggressive provide models of antisocial behaviour" (McCord, 1991, p. 412). Fathers' interactions are likely to influence the role expectations of youth, especially when they have become adults (McCord, 1991). Several attitude studies have indicated that increased family cohesiveness was perceived to be a benefit of leisure and outdoor recreation activity (West, 1986). Orthner and Mancini (1990) outlined specific leisure benefits which appear to contribute to family interaction and cohesion, and classified them into three major categories: family satisfaction, marital interaction and family stability.

Peer association has been shown to be a strong predictor of future problems for youth (Warr, 1993; Agnew, 1991; Brown et al., 1992). Studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between attachment to peers, time spent with peers, and the extent to which peers engage in deviant behaviour, and the strength of peer association as an indicator of delinquency (Agnew, 1991). Warr (1993) found that the characteristics of peer relationships change dramatically during the age span of 11 to 21 years, mirroring the pattern of delinquent crime itself. Indeed, "when measures of peer influence were controlled, the effects of age on self-reported delinquency are largely rendered insignificant" (Warr, 1993, p. 17). In addition, self-reports of involvement in criminal acts with friends, and the frequency with which friends were involved in such acts, were found to be strongly related to adult criminal conviction. This illustrates the importance of peer association in the criminal careers of juveniles (Brown et al., 1992).

A relationship has consistently been found between academic skill deficits and deviance. There has also been some evidence that youth-at-risk are less diligent in their homework responsibilities, which in turn compromises academic achievement (Dishion et al., 1984). Polk et al. (1974) reported that 54% of the male high school sophomores with an average grade of less than "C" had at least one officially documented police contact, in contrast to 25% of those students with a mean grade above "C". Wolfgang et al. (1972) documented a longitudinal relationship between poor school grades and subsequent delinquency. Berman and Siegal (1976) found that more than half of the 47 delinquents included in their sample were classified as learning-deficient. Reading skill deficits have also been associated with conduct disorders (Rutter, 1979).

In addition to the variables presented in Table 2, other predictor variables not traditionally associated with the "at-risk" term include an evolving list of health-related factors. For example, from a health (and self-esteem) perspective, obesity and poor or distorted body image are factors that clearly place youth at-risk. Furthermore, smoking behaviour, blood pressure, activity levels, and blood cholesterol profiles are the primary "risk" factors related to coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in North America. Consequently, from a health perspective, these factors must also be considered predictor variables that place youth at-risk.

It is interesting to note that many of the predictor variables associated with behaviours that place youth at-risk are also related to physical activity patterns. For example, determinants associated with low levels of physical activity include smoking, blue-collar work, lower socioeconomic status, less education, less family support, social isolation, depression, obesity, and inadequate peer support (Dishman, 1990; Dishman & Sallis, 1994). This relationship between predictors of at-risk behaviours, and determinants of physical activity provides indirect evidence supporting a connection between physical inactivity and behaviours that place youth at-risk.

3.4 CURRENT SITUATION

3.41 Magnitude of the Problem

Youth make up a significant proportion of the Canadian population. In 1991, there were 1.9 million people aged 15 -19, representing 6.8% of all Canadians (Lindsay et al, 1994). Increases in the reporting of school dropouts, substance abuse, suicide incidents, homelessness, unsafe sexual activity (pregnancy/prostitution/AIDS), juvenile crimes, and sedentary behaviour are indicators of the current magnitude of the problem related to at-risk youth and society-at-large.

It has been estimated that 25% of 10-17 year olds in North America are highly susceptible to high-risk social and health behaviours, while another 25% are moderately susceptible. The other 50% need support if they are to avoid being “at-risk” (Weissberg, Caplan, And Harwood, 1991). Clearly, the problem of youth-at-risk is a serious concern which all of society must face.

Crime

One of the most commonly used indicators of the youth-at-risk problem is incarceration statistics. In 1992-93, a total of 76,911 youth were found guilty by the youth courts (Leonard, 1993). The majority of those youth were put on probation (30,764), while the remaining were required to serve sentences in open custody (13,075), secure custody (10,768), perform community services (9,998), pay fines (5,384), or "other" treatments (3,846). "Other" refers to detention for treatment, restitution, prohibition, seizure, forfeiture, and other dispositions such as essays, apologies, and counselling programs (Statistics Canada, 1992a). There were 3,076 of the 76,911 youth who received an absolute discharge, while an additional 71 were transferred to adult court. "Approximately 8 out of 10 cases involved males and one-half of the court caseload involved 16 and 17 year old youths. The most common cases involved: theft under $1,000 (19%), break and enter (15%), failure to appear (9%), minor assault (9%), and offenses against the Young Offenders Act (YOA) (8%)" (Leonard, 1993, p. 1). Of the 76,911 youth who were found guilty, 13,429 were convicted of violent offenses, an increase of 9% over 1991 -1992 statistics. The cost of incarcerating youth increases the significance of the youth-at-risk issue. A cost evaluation of imprisoned youth in 1991-92 showed that the 22,298 youth who were housed in secure and open custody facilities cost $100,000 per youth per year (Department of Justice, 1993). The cost of maintaining the services of the criminal justice system was $7.7 billion in 1990 (Department of Justice, 1993).

Although crime statistics are the most common indicators used, the magnitude of the youth-at-riskproblem is in fact much more substantial than indicated by the incarceration data because institutions other than those in the juvenile correction system need to be included in counting the number of youth in trouble (McKay, 1994). For example, Lerman (1991) noted that youth who violate local and provincial laws are dealt with through mental health, child welfare, and alcohol and drug abuse systems, as well as the juvenile correction system. It is also necessary to look at school dropout, substance abuse, suicide, homelessness, gang involvement, sexual behaviour, and health status statistics to have a clear understanding of the magnitude of the youth-at-risk problem.

School Dropouts

The national average high school dropout rate for 1988-89 was 34.7% (Lafleur, 1992). The highest dropout rate was in Quebec (37.1%), while New Brunswick recorded the lowest average (20.8%). "The costs to society over the working lifetimes of Canada's 137,000 dropouts who should have graduated in 1989 is more than $4 billion in present-value terms" (McCrossin, 1993, p. 20). This represents $2.7 billion incurred by the dropout themselves (lower after-tax income and loss of non-market related benefits that graduates collect), and $1.3 billion to the rest of society as a result of lost tax revenue, the extra public administration costs related to crime and social welfare programs, and costs related to decreased social cohesion, decreased participation in political issues, and lower educational attainment among offspring (Lafleur, 1992). In addition, the estimated private lifetime income of a Canadian male who graduated from secondary school in 1989 is $888,000 which is $76,000 more than the estimated income for a male who dropped out and did not graduate ($812,000). Female graduates will make $63,000 more than non-graduates, $448,000 as opposed to $385,000 (Lafleur, 1992).

The school enrolment rates of people aged 15-19 in 1991-1992 was 63.3% which means that approximately 703,000 youth in that age group were not attending school (Lindsay et al., 1994). Further, there were an estimated 191,000 youth aged 15-24 years who were neither in the labour market nor the academic arena in 1992 (Sunter, 1993). Of these, 138,000 youth are women and 53,000 are men, representing 5% of the total youth population. Sunter (1993) also notes that over half of these women, and close to half of the men had not finished high school. The three sources of income for these youth were social assistance (42%), family support (26%), and unemployment insurance or worker's compensation (16%). Nearly half (81,000) of the non-student youths not in the labour force reported that their family income for 1992 was less than $15,000 (Sunter, 1993).

Suicide

In 1991, suicide was the second leading cause of death among people aged 15-19, with accidents being the first (Lindsay et al., 1994). It is suspected that the actual numbers may be up to 50% higher than those reported as some accidental deaths may have actually been deliberate suicides (Armstrong, 1987). Furthermore, according to the Canadian Mental Health Association, for every successful suicide, 50 to 100 youths have made unsuccessful suicide attempts (McCrossin, 1993). The Canadian Task Force on Suicide reported that youth suicides had increased by 300% between 1965 and 1987. The national statistics indicate that those aged 20-29 committed the highest number of suicides (18.4/100,000) while youth aged 15-19 had the lowest number (13.8/100,000) (Lindsayet al., 1994). It should be noted that over the last thirty years, the largest increase in suicide rates has occurred among males aged 15-19 (McCrossin, 1993). Statistics show that young men are more likely to take their own lives than young women. In 1991, there were 23 suicides for every 100,000 men aged 15-19, compared to only 4 for every 100,000 women (Lindsay et al., 1994). Although female suicide rates are significantly lower than males, they are more likely to attempt suicide. Tousignant et al. (1988) estimates that the ratio is 2.7 females for every one male among secondary-school students (McCrossin, 1993). A total of 198 males and 51 females aged 15-19 took their own lives in 1992 (Statistics Canada, 1992b).

In Canada, suicide rates are especially high among First Nations people and therefore is an area of interest and concern (Beneteau, 1988). In 1986, the suicide rates of 56.3 and 11.8 per 100,000 Native males and females respectively, compares to 22.8 and 6.4 for all males and females. The rates are exceedingly high for young Natives, among whom there were more than 100 suicides per 100,000 males aged 15-29 in 1986 (McCrossin, 1993).

Sexual Activity

The majority of youth are sexually active. According to Health and Welfare Canada, among people aged 15-19 in 1990, 60% of men and 56% of women reported having been sexually active (Lindsay et al., 1994). However, most young people (73%) in this age category who engaged in sexual activity were monogamous. There are three issues of paramount importance in relation to youth-at-risk and sexual activity: pregnancy, prostitution, and sexually transmitted diseases, especially AIDS.

Lindsay et al. (1994) reported that the fertility rate among young women is relatively low when compared to other age groups. In 1991, 27 live births for every 1000 women aged 15-19 were reported, up from 23/1000 women in 1987. Women aged 18-19 account for the majority of these teenage births (67%). In addition, only 17% of all women aged 15-19 giving birth in 1991 were married (Lindsay et al., 1994). It must be recognized that these statistics do not take into account all teenage pregnancies, they only indicate the pregnancies that resulted in live births. To have a complete picture, pregnancies ending in abortion and natural termination or stillbirth must also be considered.

In 1989 there were approximately 40,000 teenage pregnancies in Canada (aged 15-19 years), a decrease of 33% from 1975 (Wadhera & Strachan, 1991). Of those, 58% (23,200) resulted in live births, 36% (14,400) were therapeutic abortions, and 6% (2,400) were pregnancy terminations such as stillbirth and natural abortion. This does not take into account the number of illegal abortions, or those performed out-of-country during that year (Wadhera & Strachan, 1991).

Prostitution has become a greater concern in most large Canadian cities since the early 1980's when a noticeable growth in the number of visible street prostitutes was observed (Wolff and Geissel, 1994). Although youth aged 12-17 represent a small proportion of the persons charged with prostitution (6% in 1992), research indicates that the decision to get involved in the trade is made at a young age (Wolff & Geissel, 1993). The Bradley Committee on Sexual Offenses Against Children and Youth found that one-half of the prostitutes interviewed in 1984 entered the tradewhen they were under age 16, and 96% had become prostitutes before the age of 18 (Wolff & Geissel, 1994). Factors leading to the involvement in prostitution included abusive childhood experiences, expectation of financial gain, and premature home-leaving due to family problems (Wolff & Geissel, 1993). Youth engaged in this profession increase their risk of becoming victims of violence and abuse, addicted to drugs, and contracting AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases (STD's).

Over the past ten years, AIDS has come to the forefront of Canadian health concerns. Due to the relatively high involvement or experimentation of youths with sex, alcohol, and drugs, many people believe youth are especially at risk of contracting the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (McCrossin, 1993). In 1993, Health and Welfare Canada reported 28 AIDS cases in youth aged 15-19 years. Of those, 19 victims had died (Lindsay et al., 1994). The majority of youth AIDS cases involved males (25 out of 28). While the reported AIDS cases for 15-19 year-olds is relatively low, many of the substantially greater number of AIDS cases in the 20-29 year age group were likely infected as teenagers (McCrossin, 1993). Furthermore, the number of infected youth who have not been tested is unknown.

The public's awareness of STD's has been dominated in recent years by issues related to AIDS. Nevertheless, other STD's including chlamydia, herpes, gonorrhea, genital warts, syphilis, and viral hepatitis are far more common and impact on the health and wellness of a far greater number of youth. Not only do STD's put the physical health of youth at risk, but the likelihood of subsequent transmission places intimate peers at risk and places additional emotional stress on the infected youth.

Substance Abuse

Substance abuse is another indicator of problems faced by youth-at-risk. The abuse of alcohol is dominant in the 15-19 age category, followed by illicit and prescription drugs (Lindsay et al., 1994; Eliany, 1991). In addition, the use of tobacco by youth is a significant public health concern.

An international survey revealed that, when compared to eight other European countries, alcohol consumption patterns of Canadian youth are about average. Eight percent of 11 year-old Canadian males and 4% of 11 year-old females drink alcohol beverages at least every week (King & Coles, 1992). These figures are 14% and 7% for 13 year-old males and females respectively, and 33% and 18% for 15 year-olds. In 1991, 43% of people aged 15-19 reported consuming alcohol at least once per month (Lindsay et al., 1994). However, 74% reported consuming alcohol in the previous year (Eliany, 1991). This is proportionately lower than the older age groups with the exception of those 65 years and older. Men are more likely than women to drink regularly, while aboriginal youths are less likely than the overall youth population to drink regularly (Lindsay et al., 1994). In general, alcohol use is more common among high-income Canadians, however, when people in lower income groups do drink, they tend to consume more than those in other income groups (Eliany, 1991).

Cannabis (marijuana, hashish, and hashish oil) is the most commonly used illicit drug in Canada(Eliany, 1991). It is considerably more popular than cocaine, crack, LSD, speed, or heroine. In 1989, 12.3% of those aged 15-19 years reported cannabis use, second only to the 20-24 year age group (18.4%). The level of cocaine use among youth was 1.9% (Eliany, 1991). Approximately 25% of 15 year-old youth report having tried illegal substances at least once (King & Coles, 1992). As with alcohol consumption, males are more likely than females to use illicit drugs.

The abuse of prescription drugs is not as common among youth. In 1989, 4.9% of the 15-19 year olds reported taking codeine, demerol, or morphine in the month prior to the survey (Eliany, 1991).

The number of drug-related offenses accounted for by young people suggests that substance abuse is a significant problem. The actual number of young people charged with drug offenses in 1992 was 3,445 (Lindsay et al., 1994). This problem is more pronounced when considering that the majority of criminal offenses are committed while under the influence of drugs. Some users commit crimes to get money for drugs and others may become violent when high, leading to offences such as assault or even murder (Herscovitch, 1992).

Another issue related to substance abuse is that of HIV and intravenous drug use. Twenty percent of all regular drug users in 1988 reported using intravenous drugs, with over half of them sharing needles (McCrossin, 1993). Sharing needles is a regular practice of approximately half of street adolescents and prostitutes (McCrossin, 1993). This practice puts these youth at high risk of being infected with HIV and other diseases transmitted through parenteral inoculation.

The use of performance enhancing agents by youth represents a relatively new concern in the area of substance abuse. The admiration of sport and athletic role models, and pressure from peers, parents, and/or coaches to perform, sometimes entices young athletes to utilize agents purported to enhance athletic performance. In a 1993 survey commissioned by the Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport (CCDS), it was estimated that 83,000 Canadian youth 11-18 years of age used anabolic steroids in the past twelve months (CCDS, 1993). An estimated 265,000 young Canadians in this same age range used pain killers to do better in sports, and 94,000 used stimulants for the same reason (CCDS, 1993). An unexpected finding from this study was that nearly half of the youth using anabolic steroids were using them for reasons related to body image, not athletic performance. The drug abuse related to body image and self-esteem presents serious concerns for youth. Not only have the health ramifications of anabolic steroid use been well defined (VanHelder et al., 1991), but the potential psychological changes seen with steroid abuse can also be profound. Psychological changes that may occur with anabolic steroid use include increased aggression, increased hostility, antisocial behaviour, and irritability (Bahrke et al., 1990). In addition, there are legal and ethical consequences associated with drug use in sport. The use of performance enhancing agents can compromise the physical, mental, social and spiritual health of youth and clearly place them at risk.

Although the majority of youth who abuse anabolic steroids are male (3-6% of 11-18 year-olds), 1-2% of Canadian females surveyed are also abusing these drugs (CCDS, 1993). Furthermore, the eating disorders demonstrated by many female youth, place them at risk of physical harm and further emotional insecurities.

Finally, the use of tobacco, though not an issue of legality, is a prominent issue related to health. According to the 1988 Campbell's survey on the well-being of Canadians (Stephens & Craig, 1990), one fifth of Canadian youth aged 15-19 are regular cigarette smokers. These figures closely match the findings from Health and Welfare Canada (Eliany & Courtemanche, 1992). Over the past fifteen years there has been a steady decrease in the number of youth who smoke (Eliany & Courtemanche, 1992), however, for the first time, it appears that more females than males aged 15-19 are smoking. Compared to other industrialized nations, the proportion of Canadian youth who smoke is not excessive (King and Coles, 1992). However, smoking rates among Aboriginal youth are significantly higher than the rates for all youth combined. In 1991, 16% of all Canadian youth smoked regularly whereas 40% of Aboriginal youth aged 15-19 smoked (Statistics Canada, 1991). Smoking is a massive public health concern and youth who smoke significantly increase their risk of developing premature disease (Bruess & Richardson, 1994). A negative relationship between smoking habits and physical activity patterns has also been identified (Stephens & Craig, 1990).

Because substance abuse can be damaging to the well-being of Canadian youth, and society at large; experimentation with, or habitual use of, drugs for recreational purposes places youth at risk.

Homelessness

It is extremely difficult to assess the population of "homeless" youth. Different studies identify the target group as runaways, street kids, and homeless youth, making any estimation of the size of this population a guess at best (Brannigan & Caputo, 1993). In Canada, estimates range from 12,000 youth in the Toronto area alone, to 150,000 nation wide (Brannigan & Caputo, 1993). Although accurate population estimates are unknown, the problems associated with being "on the street" are well defined. Homeless youth are prone to dropping out of school, becoming involved in prostitution, participating in criminal behaviour, abusing substances, committing suicide, and joining youth gangs (Brannigan & Caputo, 1993).

Gang Involvement

Although there is a sense in the general population that gang involvement by youth is increasing, there is little empirical evidence available to substantiate this perception. Difficulties defining gang involvement and acquiring valid information from youth in this regard hinders the acquisition of accurate information related to gang involvement trends. This particular area related to youth-at-risk requires further research.

According to recent accounts, the number of gangs and the severity of their delinquent acts are increasing (Huff, 1990). Males out number female gang members at a ratio of approximately 20:1. Gang size has been found to vary based upon the density of the youth population in a given geographical area, the nature of the gangs activities, police pressures, the season of the year, gang recruitment efforts, and relevant agency activity (Huff, 1990).

Sedentary Behaviour

Children and youth need 30 minutes of physical activity every day to improve fitness and health levels, yet 90% of Canadian children participate less than that (Canadian Association for Health,Physical Education, and Recreation (CAHPER), 1992). Canadian youth spend 20-26 hours per week watching television (Russell et al., 1992). Approximately 20% of Canadian males and females 15-19 years of age are classified as obese (Stephens & Craig, 1990), and trends indicate that youth are becoming progressively fatter (Pate & Shephard, 1989). These statistics portray a poor picture of the physical wellness of Canadian youth. Because recreational opportunities decrease as personal fitness decreases, and because of the strong positive relationship between physical activity and health (Bouchard et al., 1994), these statistics suggest that many youth may be compromising their physical health and limiting their recreational life experiences.

Increased regular physical activity is associated with a reduction in the risk of smoking, obesity, heart disease, colon cancer, hypertension, type II diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, depression, anxiety, and low back pain, while improving recovery from injury or surgery (Bouchard et al., 1994). Conversely, sedentary behaviours are associated with an increased risk of premature disease development. From a health perspective, an inactive lifestyle must be considered a risk factor for youth.

3.42 Summary of Trends and Statistics

Recent encouraging trends and statistics related to the well-being of Canadian youth-at-risk include:

•During the period 1989-1990, the proportion of young people aged 11-17 using alcohol regularly (once a month or more) declined from 23% to 14% (Health and Welfare Canada, 1991).

•In 1987, 18% of Canadian youth 12-17 years of age reported smoking on a daily basis, by 1990 this had declined to approximately 14% (Health and Welfare Canada, 1991).

•Between 1987 and 1990 the proportion of Canadian youth reporting marijuana use decreased from 8% to 2% (Health and Welfare Canada, 1991).

•Between 1988 and 1990 the proportion of youth aged 16-24 who reported driving after having at least one alcoholic drink declined from 18% to 12%.

•In 1989 there were approximately 40,000 teenage pregnancies in Canada (aged 15-19 years), a decrease of 33% from 1975 (Wadhera & Strachan, 1991).

Recent discouraging trends and statistics related to the well-being of Canadian youth-at-risk include:

•In 1992-93, a total of 76,911 youth were found guilty by the youth courts (Leonard, 1993).

•The costs to society over the working lifetimes of Canada's 137,000 dropouts who should have graduated in 1989 is more than $4 billion in present-value terms (McCrossin, 1993).

•There were an estimated 191,000 youth aged 15 - 24 years who were neither in the labour market nor the academic arena in 1992 (Sunter, 1993).

•The Canadian Task Force on Suicide reported that youth suicides had increased by 300% between 1965 and 1987.

•Over the last thirty years, the largest increase in suicide rates has occurred among males aged 15-19 (McCrossin, 1993).

•In 1986, the suicide rates of 56.3 and 11.8 per 100,000 Native males and females respectively, compares to 22.8 and 6.4 for all males and females.

•Only 17% of all women aged 15-19 giving birth in 1991 were married (Lindsay et al., 1994).

•In 1989 there were approximately 40,000 teenage pregnancies in Canada (Wadhera & Strachan, 1991).

•The Bradley Committee on Sexual Offenses Against Children and Youth found that one-half of the prostitutes interviewed in 1984 entered the trade when they were under age 16, and 96% had become prostitutes before the age of 18 (Wolff & Geissel, 1994).

•Approximately 25% of 15 year-old youth report having tried illegal substances at least once (King & Coles, 1992).

•The actual number of young people charged with drug offenses in 1992 was 3,445 (Lindsay et al., 1994).

•An estimated 83,000 Canadian youth aged 11-18 used anabolic steroids in the past year (CCDS, 1993).

•According to the 1988 Campbell's survey on the well-being of Canadians, one fifth of Canadian youth aged 15-19 are regular cigarette smokers (Stephens & Craig, 1990).

•In Canada, estimates of the number of homeless youth range from 12,000 in the Toronto area alone, to 150,000 nation wide (Brannigan & Caputo, 1993).

•The number of gangs and the severity of their delinquent acts are increasing (Huff, 1990).

•According to the Campbell's longitudinal Survey on the well-being of Canadians, 27% of males and 43% of females aged 15-19 have an increased health risk associated with excess body fat (Stephens & Craig, 1990).

•In general, an increased proportion of the Canadian population reported that they were active (3+ kcal/kg/day) in 1988 compared to 1981. The only segment of the population to show a decline in activity levels was teenaged females (Stephens & Craig, 1990).

•Children and youth need 30 minutes of physical activity every day to improve fitness and health levels, yet 90% of Canadian children participate less than that (CAHPER, 1992).

•Canadian youth spend 20-26 hours per week watching television (Russell et al., 1992).

3.43 Government Policies/Initiatives

Federal Initiatives for Youth-at-Risk

The problems of young people have received particular attention by the Canadian federal government during the past fifteen years. This attention is evident in the numerous initiatives for children and youth undertaken by the federal government during this period. For example, the 1979 Commission on the International Year of the Child championed the rights and well-being of children. In January of 1985, the Minister of State for Youth launched the International Year of Youth, designed to encourage the integration of the interests and concerns of young people into society, and to mark their contribution to society.

Public concern over the problems facing young people have resulted in a number of studies in Canada. For example, in 1982 the federal government established the Child Abuse Information Program (later known as the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence). This national study produced 52 recommendations with respect to child abuse and juvenile prostitution, many of which were incorporated into Bill C-15. In 1984 Robin Badgley presented a study on the sexual victimization of young people entitled The Report of the Select Committee on Sexual Offenses Against Children and Youth. Also, Paul Fraser's Select Committee on Pornography and Prostitution (1985) made recommendations regarding the need to protect children and young people from sexual exploitation. In December of 1985, The Missing Children Research Project was undertaken as part of the Federal Solicitor General's missing children initiative. This research project was designed to increase public understanding of the problem of missing children, while providing police and social agencies with information that could assist them in devising effective operational strategies.

In August of 1987, a Special Advisor to the Minister of National Health and Welfare, Rix Roger, was appointed with a mandate to prepare a report on the long range direction of federal initiatives regarding child sexual abuse, including their implementation, and coordination. The Special Advisor's report was released in June of 1990 and contained over 70 recommendations, all recognizing the important value of Canadian children and emphasizing action to protect them and their rights (Rogers, 1990).

The responsiveness of the federal government was evident in many other areas. There has been significant policy development in the area of violence against women and children, cycles of family violence, the availability of affordable shelter, child poverty, and the plight of Native and immigrant children, to name only a few.

In 1991 the Minister of State for Youth, alarmed by the issue of early school drop-outs, launched a national Stay In School Initiatives and earmarked $296 million dollars over a five year period to reverse a national average dropout rate of about 30% (Minister of State for Youth, 1991).

A number of developments in Canada during the last decade have had a significant impact on the experiences of children and youth. The passage of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, for example, enshrined the right of children in the nation's constitution. Furthermore, changes to Canada's juvenile justice system fundamentally altered the way young people in conflict with the law are dealt with. These national developments have been complimented by local and regional initiatives to deal more effectively with problems faced by young people. These initiatives include educational programs and efforts to enhance the delivery of services to young people. In the criminal justice field, this is visible in crime prevention initiatives, community policing strategies, and the development and implementation of effective law enforcement practices.

Provincial Initiatives for Youth-at-Risk

Newfoundland

*The Youth Services Division of the Department of Education responds to youth related issues and concerns. It offers programs and services which enhance the leadership and citizenship skills of young people in Newfoundland and Labrador.

*There are many initiatives presently under way to address issues facing youths. These include youth unemployment, prevention of violence, AIDS education, child abuse, and delivery of education. There is no coordinating body for policy making by government to address these issues. Also, the province has not undertaken any report to determine the global needs of youth in Newfoundland and Labrador.

Nova Scotia

*The Nova Scotia Youth Secretariat was created in June 1990 to provide a focal point for the development of effective responses by Government to the needs and aspirations of youth. The Youth Secretariat Act, which provided the Secretariat with legal status, recognized that the diverse needs of Nova Scotians between 15 and 24 years touched the mandates of a number of government departments. Leisure opportunities has been recognized as one of the concerns of this age group.

*Youth in the '90s, a report commissioned by the Secretariat, represented a starting point for mobilizing and coordinating resources toward effectively addressing the needs of youth. The report is grounded in the belief that youth must be consulted directly about their concerns. It addressed the volunteer rate of Nova Scotian youth as being one of the highest in Canada. Also, the report identified grade ten students as having the lowest level of participation in physical education classes in all of Canada. Apart from the above two issues, little was mentioned in the report about recreation related issues for youth in Nova Scotia. It is the intention of the Secretariat to update the report every 5 years.

*Another report entitled Juvenile Justice and Youth Crime in Nova Scotia, suggested that "One can only hope that well-informed and thought-out debates result in a system which both protects the interest of society and responds to the needs of young people". It will be up to the recreation practitioners to make sure they are part of that debate.

*The Nova Scotia Youth Secretariat, a cabinet committee composed of 8 Ministers whose departments are involved with youth, has not yet provided clear policy direction for at-risk youth, including the need for special recreational opportunities.

*In November 1994, the Youth Report Implementation Planning Sessions outlined specific strategies and action steps which will be undertaken in the near future. Think Tank Committees on child, youth, and family issues in each of the five designated areas of the province will begin to address the issues raised in the Youth Report. Personnel will be engaged by both the Provincial Health and Community Service Agency and the Department of Education to assist in the implementation phase. It is anticipated that a close working relationship between the Division of Recreation and the implementation process will be established.

Prince Edward Island

*On Prince Edward Island, concerns for their children reached a peak in the late eighties when a number of organizations took it upon themselves to educate the public about some of the glaring gaps in the province's response to the needs of young people. In February 1989, the Chairman of the Policy Board Committee of Cabinet publicly announced that a review of services for adolescents would be completed. This review would examine the needs and service requirements of adolescents, the range and type of services currently available, and the service barriers and/or service gaps.

*Youth on Prince Edward Island: An Investment in Our Future is a government led report which attempted to focus on the adolescent population and get a sense of the current situation, identify critical and urgent issues, and recommend what direction might be taken. On issues related to recreation, the report concluded that the province has a number of very good programs directed at young people, however, high risk youth were reluctant to become involved in these recreational programs. Recreational planners need to explore ways to seekout and involve the high risk adolescent in recreational activities designed to build self-esteem, confidence, and appropriate risk-taking. The report recommended that the recreational planners within Government and community programs ensure that the recreational needs of high risk adolescents be incorporated into community recreational programs or strategies. A series of Forums on Youth followed the report to identify, discuss, and prioritize the issues leading to problems for youth on PEI, and to discuss possible solutions.

*In July 1990, a Director of Youth Policy within the Department of Health and Social Services was created and filled. The intent of this position was, in part, to follow-up on the Youth Report and the Youth Forum. Consequently, in November 1990, the Government Reform Process took under its wing the Youth Review Initiative, which enlarged its mandate from youth to children and youth.

*In June of 1994, a report was prepared for Community and Correctional Services and the Community Safety and Crime Prevention Advisory Committee entitled Strategies for Safer Communities in Prince Edward Island. The report recognized that communities are the best place for action and people most affected by the problem of community safety should be part of the solution. It is hoped that local recreation departments will be one of the partners for safer communities.

*Children, Youth, and Their Communities: A New Approach, a report of the Children and Youth Program Review Initiative, was presented to the Cabinet Committee on Government Reform in February, 1992. In the report, 21 recommendations represented a blueprint for redesigning the children and youth services system. At present, a plan is being developed that will require five to ten years to be fully realized. There are two recommendations which could have an impact on recreational services to youth. The first is that the amalgamation of all services directed primarily at children, youth and their families be delivered through one department of the government. Also, in order to allow the voice of the youth to be heard, it was recommended that youth have memberships on all service boards and organizations that have a direct impact on young people's lives and that are wholly, or in part, financed through government dollars.

New Brunswick

*In November 1988, the Federal Minister of State for Youth and N.B. Minister of Advanced Education and Training, signed the Canada-New Brunswick Youth Employment Strategy Agreement, the first of two pilot projects across Canada. This Youth Strategy was intended to facilitate youths' transition into the labour market. Recreational issues for youth were not addressed in the strategy.

*In December 1989, the Cabinet Policy and Priority Committee mandated the Family and Community Services Division of Health and Community Services to proceed with a studyto determine the service needs of 16 to 19 year old youth, and suggest strategies to better meet their needs. The Report of the Interdepartmental Committee to Determine Service Needs of At-Risk Youth in New Brunswick, with its 22 recommendations, was presented to the Policy and Priority Committee in April 1991. On issues related to recreation, the report recommended that the Department of Health and Community Services immediately initiate a regional forum for consultation, and that recreational planners and other individuals/organizations be part of that process.

*The Youth Council of New Brunswick was created in 1987 as an advisory body to government and the public on matters of concern to youth. This group undertook a six month consultation process with youth and youth-serving organizations around the province. The Youth Perspectives Tour 91 Report formulated a series of recommendations which it believes addresses the many concerns raised during the consultation process. On issues relating to recreation, the report recommended that the provincial government ensure the establishment of Youth Houses, run by youth, for communities across the province, and that municipalities hire youth program coordinators to manage comprehensive services to youth and assist in the development of "for youth/by youth" initiatives.

*In January of 1992, following the formation of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Youth Services, a document entitled Framework for Youth Services was circulated within government. The purpose of the framework was to serve as a benchmark document on youth initiatives carried out in provincial departments. This document will assist in advising the Minister of State for Youth on priorities in existing and future youth services. The Inter-Departmental Committee will start developing a provincial youth strategy in the early part of 1995. Also, the province has recently created the Family Secretariat which is presently in the process of developing its mandate. In both of these committees, the provincial department responsible for recreation is present around the table.

Quebec

*In regard to youth, the Québec government has a Conseil Permannent de la Jeunesse which was created in 1988. The council, made up of youth only, advises the premier on all issues facing youth.

*The Québec Youth Secretariat, le Sécrétariat à la Jeunesse, which was formed in 1983, is a central coordinating agency for the government. Its mandate is to plan and develop government policies for youth. The Secretariat is responsible for insuring that governmental objectives on youth are met. It also analyses and gives advice in the establishment of law, regulations, and policies affecting youth.

*It is the Ministère des Affaires Municipales which is responsible for the delivery and implementation of sport and recreation services in Québec. The Ministère de la Santé et des Services Sociaux offers social services to Quebecois', including services to youth-at-risk andsupport to youth organizations related to recreation, such as youth drop-in centres.

*In 1992, the Youth Secretariat published a report entitled La Jeunesse Québécoise-Faits et Chiffres (15-29 ans). The report analyzed the current situation of youth in Quebec. On the subject of recreation, the report noted a study done by the department responsible for recreation Ministère du Loisirs, de la Chasse et de la Pêche, which reported that youth between 18 and 25 showed little interest in recreational activities that adults organized, but preferred to be given the opportunity to organize their own recreational activities. The report goes on to say that the majority of youth do not believe that municipal recreation programs correspond to their needs.

*In 1991/92 three major studies on youth issues were published in Quebec: Un Québec Fou de ses enfant, La Protection sur mesure, un projet collectif, and La Protection de la Jeunesse, plus qu'une loi. The government established an action plan "Le Plan d'action Jeunesse" as a follow up to the three reports. The implementation of the action plan is the responsibility of the Department of Health and Social Services, including the recommendations that relate to recreation.

*Since 1992, numerous departmental committees have produced reports on problems facing youth in Québec, including issues such as youth crime and violence, and the tension that exists between adolescents and young adults.

Ontario

*There is no central coordinating department or secretariat which deals with youth issues in Ontario. There are about 17 ministries which all have various involvement with youth-related initiatives. Ontario's approach has been to create partnerships on specific committees and task forces. The Ontario Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Recreation was organized at one time around population groupings, with a consultant responsible for a portfolio on youth. The Ministry is involved with key stakeholder groups such as The Park and Recreation Federation, and a Childrens' Task Force on Violence, and working with the sport community to develop an accountability framework which may have implications for services and priorities for youth.

*In 1991, the Child, Youth, and Family Policy Research Centre, (an independent, multidisciplinary policy research institute in Toronto), attempted to provide a comprehensive picture of the conditions of children in Ontario through their report The State of the Child in Ontario. It was hoped that the report would be a useful resource for policy-makers, researchers, service providers, advocates, and others concerned with the welfare of children and youth. The report identified the need for improved data collection in Ontario. It stated that effective policy development requires a coordinated, inter-ministerial data collection process, not only a description of the current situation. Additionally, it is necessary to identify trends and the impact of the various systems that serve children/youth. It is hoped that, eventually, recreation would be a variable that is followed in the community.

*The 1991 report of the Premier's Council on Health Strategy, Nurturing Health: A Framework on the Determinants of Health, recommended that the formation of a healthy child development policy be a priority.

*In 1992, the Premier's Council decided to form a Children and Youth Committee to develop a framework of understanding and action for the healthy development of children and youth. In May of 1994, the report Yours, Mine, and Ours: Ontario's Children and Youth Phase One was released. The report recommended a goal of equitable outcomes in healthy development to achieve health and well-being for all children and youth, including those at risk. As part of Phase Two, the committee will be working with, and looking to, communities for the best ways to bring local players together to implement this report.

*A series of focus groups held as part of the Aspiration Projects of the Premier's Council on Health, Well-Being and Social Justice found that, in Ontario, both parents and teenagers placed a high priority on having more time to spend with each other; time that was not available because of work-related demand.

Manitoba

*Manitoba's Policy For Recreation Opportunities, adopted by Cabinet in 1991, recognized recreation's contribution to the health and well-being of individuals, and the social and economic health of communities.

*After years of struggling with serious problems, the residents of remote northern communities in Manitoba are turning to recreation for help. As a result of a Remote Communities Recreation Conference, a recreation directors training project was developed and implemented. Leaders from remote communities, along with officials from Culture, Heritage and Citizenship, and Northern Affairs, worked cooperatively with Education and Training (New Careers) to develop the Northern Recreation Director Pilot Project involving 27 Northern Affairs communities. Currently 10 of the 18 graduates are employed serving 17 communities. This program is associated with a decrease in crime of up to 27%.

*In December 1993, a Manitoba Summit on Youth Violence and Crime was undertaken. During the summit, participants emphasized the value of recreation activities and/or sports as a means of preventing and intervening in youth crime and violence. Summit participants also recommended the development of positive alternatives for youth, such as mentoring and role modeling, in addressing the potential for involvement in criminal and/or violent activities.

*In October 1994, the Manitoba Children and Youth Secretariat was formed. Their mainobjective is to initiate a coordinated and integrated system of services for children, youth and their families. This system currently includes prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, safety, and care services provided through Education and Training, Family Services, Health, and Justice. The department responsible for recreation delivery in the province, Culture, Heritage and Citizenship, is not included.

Saskatchewan

*In June of 1993, the Government of Saskatchewan invited individuals, organizations and communities to join together to address children's issues. A paper entitled Children First: An Invitation to Work Together was sent to over 1,200 groups and organizations. The paper proposed a policy framework, including beliefs, principles and goals, and a vision for improving the well-being of Saskatchewan children. The release of the paper was an important step in the development of Saskatchewan's Action Plan for Children, a provincial strategy to enhance the well-being of children and families.

*Saskatchewan's Action Plan for Children is a cooperative effort by seven government departments and secretariats. The department responsible for recreation, Saskatchewan Municipal Government, is one of the seven. Over $4.4 million was allocated in the 1994/95 budget for initiatives under the Action Plan. Drawing from the consultation, the themes of prevention and support for families have been key strategies. Prevention and Support Grants of $1.4 million were made available to community agencies as part of the 1994/95 Budget allocation.

*On March 7, 1994, the Saskatchewan Council on Children was announced. It consists of 25 members, including three youth representatives. Particular attention has been given to ensuring Metis and First Nation representation.

*As a result of the provincial action plan, the department responsible for recreation, Sport, Culture and Recreation (Saskatchewan Municipal Government - Recreation Branch) developed a Youth at Risk Strategy. The goals of the strategy were to raise the level of awareness about the benefit of recreation; facilitate and promote a wide range of accessible program opportunities for children and youth; facilitate strategic alliances; and identify and access technical resources that address trends, needs and barriers to participation.

*In response to youth problems, the Department of Municipal Government and three provincial organizations (Sask Sport Inc., Saskatchewan Council of Cultural Organization, and Saskatchewan Parks and Recreation Association) developed a four part strategy that, when implemented, will illustrate how sport, culture and recreation could be used to address the needs of youth at risk. The strategic goals are to: increase the participation of "youth at risk"; encourage municipal officials and youth-serving organizations to make youth activities a higher spending priority; build support for the youth-at-risk philosophy with the members and stakeholders of recreation. This appears to be an exemplary model with respect tophysical activity/recreation and youth-at-risk.

Alberta

*Alberta Community Development is the provincial department responsible for recreation, culture, community services and individual rights and citizenship services. In 1994, this department adopted a provincial youth strategy which has as its two main themes; the development of youth initiatives by youth, and collaboration/cooperation among youth serving agencies. Joint activities, such as training programs for youth and regular networking exchanges for those working with youth, are being implemented as a result of policy set out in the strategy document titled "Towards 2000...The Provincial Youth Strategy."

*On an ongoing basis, the Provincial Youth Strategy will review and reassess programs and services, consult with other partners and re-examine priorities, and clarify roles and responsibilities. Also, the department will continue to support an Alberta Youth Network, and has developed a departmental communication plan for the promotion of the Strategy. Partners involve all youth serving organizations, both provincial and municipal, as well as semi-private agencies (ie., Scouts, YMCA's, and youth emergency services).

*At the provincial level, Alberta has a Commissioner of Services for Children and Youth, and the Premier's Council in Support of Alberta's Families. Both of these "commissions" have some responsibility for coordinating provincial government department services for children and youth on a level much broader than recreation. The operative document in this regard, developed in 1994, is called "Planning and Implementation a New Approach to Services for Children and Families ... Beginning the Transition".

British Columbia

*In 1991, the B.C. Government created the Child and Youth Secretariat. The Secretariat was formed to provide strategic direction, policy and administrative leadership on child/youth issues, and make recommendations regarding services and program integration. The Secretariat consists of a committee of Deputy Ministers from eight Ministries (Attorney General; Education; Health; Social Service; Women's Equality; Aboriginal Affairs; Housing, Recreation and Consumer Services; Skill Training and Labour; and Employment and Investment).

*Specific responsibilities of the Secretariat include support for: the development and implementation of pilot projects to test integrated approaches to service delivery; local and regional Child and Youth Committees in strategic planning, priority setting, case management and community development; government policy coordination and policy identification; program and service coordination issues and problems. There is no provincial cross-government report which describes the status of youth or a government position paperin this regard.

*The province is currently developing a strategy for youth. Issues that are being examined include: opportunities for youth to provide input, and being able to make decisions on issues that affect their lives; youth employment and training; youth involvement in crime and security; and access to recreational opportunities for youth. To date, the province of British Columbia has done an inventory of government programs for youth and an environmental scan on youth issues.

Yukon

*The Yukon government is in its formative stages regarding physical activity and recreation programming initiatives for youth-at-risk. In 1993, a conference focusing on youth issues was held in Carcross. As a result of discussions among youth and government officials, a strong recommendation was forwarded to the government to establish a committee to address the issues identified by youth attending the conference. This committee would include representatives from Health and Human Resources; Justice; and Sport and Recreation. The role of the committee would be to identify the issues facing youth and to develop a long-term strategy to address the lack of programs and services available for young people in the Yukon.

*One initiative that has addressed the lack of social and recreational opportunities for youth is the establishment of three youth drop-in centres (Carcross, Ross River, and Haines Junction), financially supported by the Yukon government.

*Presently, an inter-governmental working group consisting of individuals from the provincial government, the City of Whitehorse, and non-profit organizations are working together to develop a strategy for special projects and funding for youth-at-risk.

Northwest Territories

*There is no Youth Secretariat or department responsible for the overall coordination of youth and child initiatives for the Northwest Territories. Nevertheless, other departments such as Health and Social Services; Municipality and Community Affairs; and Justice have specific programs for youth.

*The Department of Education, Culture and Employment is studying a document on youth which focuses on youth participation in the work force, birthrates, and substance abuse. The "Youth Document" did not focus on physical activity/recreation for youth. The Department is looking at implementing some type of program or initiative for youth.

3.5 POTENTIAL IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/RECREATION

Evidence supporting the notion that participation in regular physical activity/recreation positively affects character goes back many years (Blanchard, 1946). More contemporary research continues to suggest a possible connection between sport participation and character development, though the evidence arising from improved research techniques is inconclusive (Coakley, 1993). The sport setting is considered an attractive venue for moral growth because both naturally occurring and contrived moral dilemmas frequently emerge (Weiss & Bredemeier, 1990). In addition to the possible moral improvements related to physical activity/recreation participation, numerous physiological improvements have been demonstrated as well (Bouchard et al., 1994; Sallis, 1994). The purpose of this section is to briefly highlight the encouraging relationship between regular participation in physical activity/recreation, and a reduction in lifestyle risk factors for youth.

A literature review reveals a number of research thrusts that can be used to evaluate the contribution of various facets of physical activity/recreation in alleviating behavioural risk factors for youth. These areas of research have been divided here into the following sections: boredom; psychological issues; lifestyle behaviours; physiological issues; family issues; peer-related issues; school issues; wilderness challenge programs; community-based programs; sport; and television and video games. Like the factors identifying youth-at-risk, these research thrusts can be organized into the elements of a youth's life: (1) self; (2) family; (3) peer; (4) school; and (5) community.

3.51 Self-Related Issues

Boredom

Boredom is viewed as an important factor in adolescents' lives because of its reported link to affective states such as depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and distractibility (McGiboney and Carter, 1988). Boredom research has focused on explaining why adolescents' experience boredom during their leisure, which in turn helps to explain why youth take part in deviant behaviours during that time. Caldwell (1993) cites a number of studies that have linked boredom to deviant behaviour. For example, boredom has been linked to alcohol use among college students (Orcutt, 1984) and high school students (Sides, 1992), smoking among high school students (Smith & Caldwell, 1989), deviant behaviour at school (Wasson, 1981) and over-eating (Mehradian & Riccioni, 1986). The optimal arousal perspective offers a viable explanation for the association between leisure boredom and deviance. Adolescents who have a high need for stimulation often turn to negative leisure pursuits as a means of alleviating their boredom (Hamilton, 1983).

McGiboney and Carter (1988) examined the personality characteristics of youth prone to boredom. Their research indicated that adolescents who are easily upset, affected by feelings, inactive, and easily led show the greatest boredom proneness. High boredom proneness was related to social dependency, a disregard for rules, apprehension, insecurity and guilt; low boredom proneness was related to enthusiasm and a tendency to be adventurous and socially bold. Similar results were reported by Wasson (1981) who found that the more individuals were susceptible to boredom, the more they engaged in deviant behaviour at school. In addition, males engaged more frequently in deviant behaviour at school than females.

Orcutt (1984) showed that if youth perceived their daily routine as boring, they were more likely to use alcohol. However, those who were not happy being with other people, were bored with small talk, and would rather stay home, were more likely to avoid social drinking occasions and consume less alcohol.

Smith and Caldwell (1989) examined smoking in relation to leisure boredom. Their study indicated that adolescents who smoked were more bored and less challenged, felt less skilled in their leisure pursuits, and were generally more anxious about their leisure.

Iso-Ahola and his colleges have conducted the greatest amount of research in the area of leisure boredom. Iso-Ahola and Weissinger (1987) developed a Leisure Boredom Scale to measure perceptions of boredom in leisure. The results showed that as the variables of perceived social competence, self-as-entertainment, intrinsic leisure motivation, self-esteem, leisure ethic, leisure satisfaction, leisure participation, and mental and physical health decrease, leisure boredom increases. These results have been duplicated in subsequent studies (Iso-Ahola & Weissinger, 1990). Other notable studies which have used the Leisure Boredom Scale have presented evidence that supports the hypothesis that substance abusers are more likely than non-abusers to experience leisure as boredom (Iso-Ahola & Crowely, 1991), and that leisure boredom results from a disruption in the process through which individuals identify and satisfy intrinsic motives (Weissinger et al., 1992).

Psychological Issues

Hull (1990) reviewed the literature on mood, emotion, affective and similar constructs in relation to leisure, and found that mood is a significant, prevalent, and relevant product of leisure activities. Mood changes from participation in leisure pursuits appear to have a positive impact on memory, task performance, helping behaviour, socialization, self-esteem, and health. These variables are often identified as deficient in youth-at-risk, and likely contribute to their lack of school achievement, poor self-concept, and inadequate interaction skills (McKay, 1994). The impact of leisure-induced mood changes can be very significant because of the influence on behaviours and cognitions of individuals long after they leave the leisure setting (Hull, 1990).

Other researchers have concentrated on the use of therapeutic recreation on clinically depressed patients, including adolescents. The research in this area has been based on Bandura's (1986) self-efficacy theory. Malkin et al. (1989) found that depressed female patients experienced a lack of control, freedom, satisfaction, and hope for the future which resulted in withdrawal and reduced participation in life. Participation in recreational activities increased the patients' sense of freedom, confidence, self-esteem, accomplishment, and interpersonal problem-solving. In addition, many noted that leisure was the only bright spot in their lives. Consistent results were found by Malkin (1991). She also looked at the patients' lack of energy and motivation, as well as power, leisure constraints, and evaluation of being a woman as opposed to a man. Malkin (1991) indicated that recreation had a positive effect on womens' perception of power and evaluation of being a woman. Increases in energy and motivation were also found. It was suggested that the lack of opportunity to participate in recreation due to gender discrimination may have prevented the patients fromreceiving those benefits derived from recreation that can have a positive impact on depression. However, opportunity to participate is not the only criteria that must be met in order for depressed patients to receive benefits from recreation. Iso-Ahola and Mobily (1982) note that experiences of uncontrollability and helplessness result in reactive depression which result in further withdrawal and reduced participation in recreational activities. Depressed patients must be provided with the opportunities, and given the encouragement and motivation, to take part if any benefits are to be realized (Iso-Ahola & Mobily, 1982). Knowles (1981) found that if depressed individuals were made to take part in physical activity as part of their treatment, they came out of their depression sooner than if they received traditional treatment methods.

Maughan and Ellis (1991) examined the perception of efficacy, competence, control, freedom, and independence in adolescents, and how the use of positive verbal reinforcement during recreation could impact these variables. They indicated that the youths' feelings improved with positive reinforcement and that the improvement resulted in an increase in ability. Maughan and Ellis (1991) also noted that these feelings increased through the development of rapport with recreation leaders. Ellis et al. (1993) duplicated these results. They also included the use of imagery and its effects on efficacy variables without significant results.

Participation in regular physical activity promotes self-esteem (Calfas & Taylor, 1994; Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 1994; McAuley, 1994). Physical activity is also related to improved self-concept, reduced depressive symptoms, decreased stress and anxiety, improved self-acceptance, and enhanced psychological well-being (Calfas & Taylor, 1994; Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 1994; McAuley, 1994). Weyerer (1992) reported that subjects who were inactive had three times the risk of depression compared to those who were active. Exercise and physical activity also improve self-efficacy and sense of competence (McAuley, 1994). By referring to Table 2, it is quickly noted that these psychological variables are all important predictor variables for youth-at-risk. The ability of physical activity/recreation to positively impact on these variables presents a strong case to use these as intervention strategies to reduce behavioural risk factors for youth.

Lifestyle Behaviours

There is a significant negative correlation between leisure-time physical activity and smoking status (Wankel & Sefton, 1994). More than 80% of Canadians between the ages of 10 and 24 who are active have never smoked (Stephens & Craig, 1990). There is also evidence to suggest that nutritional practices are better in people who are active compared to those that are inactive (Stephens & Craig, 1990; Wankel & Sefton, 1994). The very limited research evaluating the association between physical activity level and other preventive health behaviours (seat belt use, regular health check-ups) suggests that a positive relationship might exist (Wankel & Sefton, 1994). With respect to the effect of physical activity on drug abuse, the literature is equivocal (Williams, 1994). One notable exception is the positive relationship between certain types of physical activity and anabolic steroid use, due to the ergogenic potential of the drug. More research is needed to elucidate the potential relationship between drug abuse, and other lifestyle behaviours, and physical activity/recreation patterns.

Physiological Issues

In 1992, the American Heart Association acknowledged physical inactivity as a major risk factor in the development of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death in North America. In 1993, the Canadian Heart and Stroke Foundation also reclassified physical inactivity as a primary risk factor for heart disease. The results of the International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents detailed the physical activity guidelines for adolescents, and the health benefits related to habitual physical activity (Sallis, 1994). Specifically, in adolescents, regular physical activity can improve aerobic fitness (Morrow & Freedson, 1994), skeletal health (Bailey & Martin, 1994), and blood lipid profiles (Armstrong & Simons-Morton, 1994), reduce obesity (Bar-Or & Baranowski, 1994), lower blood pressure (Alpert & Wilmore, 1994), and enhance psychological well-being (Calfas & Taylor, 1994).

In addition to the long-term health benefits related to regular participation in physical activity, there are also short-term responses to exercise that occur which may be beneficial in reducing risk factors for some youth. For example, regardless of exercise intensity or duration, anxiety reduction occurs following acute or chronic exercise (Landers & Petruzzello, 1994); acute bouts of physical exercise can serve as an effective tranquilizer (Rowland, 1990); post-exercise blood pressure is reduced, particularly in mildly hypertensive adolescents (Rowland, 1990); and muscle tension is reduced following exercise (Sime, 1990). Each of these responses can be positively related to holistic health (Bouchard et al., 1994) and provide evidence of a cathartic effect of exercise.

Improved fitness levels are associated with an improved reactivity to stressors (Sime, 1990). In other words, individuals who maintain good aerobic fitness levels will respond to stressful situations with reduced physiological alterations. This adaptation is possibly advantageous from both a physical and mental health perspective. Ulrich et al. (1990) examined the physiological responses to stress and the impact of leisure participation on these responses. Findings from this study also indicated that leisure experiences have stress reducing properties which can be measured through physiological responses.

Each of the physiological responses or adaptations mentioned here, as well as the other psychological benefits of physical activity/recreation, are related to, or caused by, some basic physiological mechanism. These mechanisms may be related to changes in hormone levels, alterations in neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, changes in body temperature, changes in cerebral blood flow or other cardiovascular parameters, and/or changes in endogenous opiates, to name a few. Research in this area is particularly scarce. An improved understanding of the physiological mechanisms responsible for some of the advantageous responses to physical activity would facilitate the development of specific activity prescriptions designed to produce desired effects.

Perhaps the most studied physiological factor related to youth-at-risk involves testosterone. The psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone has been of interest to scientists for centuries. A relationship between endogenous testosterone levels and aggression levels has been observed (Bahrke et al., 1990). Higher levels of testosterone in some individuals is associated withan increased level of aggression. Furthermore, the administration of supplemental anabolic steroids may have psychological and behavioural effects on some individuals, making them more hostile and aggressive (Bahrke et al., 1990). A reduction in post-exercise testosterone levels has been observed, particularly after prolonged endurance activity (Tremblay, 1994). Consequently, exercise may provide a physiological change that reduces the potential risk associated with elevated testosterone levels. This physiological-behavioural relationship provides an example of how physiological research can assist youth-at-risk.

3.52 Family-Related Issues

Results of empirical research in the area of family and leisure suggest that leisure behaviour appears to be both affected by, and have an affect on, marriage and family factors (Holman & Epperson, 1984). Some parent - adolescent problems may stem from the lack of congruence between what teenagers do with their parents and what they would like to do. Orthner and Mancini (1990) reported that husbands and wives who share leisure time in joint activities report a higher level of satisfaction within the marriage than those who do not. This in turn contributed to a healthy home environment for the children, good marital communication, and family stability. Mancini also noted that parallel activities, such as movie and television watching had a slight positive association, while independent leisure activities had a strong negative relationship, with the variables of satisfaction, interaction and stability.

3.53 Peer-Related Issues

Stokowski and Lee (1991) note that the special function of small, intimate recreation groups is to provide significant socializing experiences for group members. They cite a number of studies which illustrate that specific socialization occurs during leisure. This includes social bonding of intimate family and friends, individuals developing identities, learning social roles, establishing and reinforcing norms of behaviour, enhancing group solidarity, and creating social meanings (Stokowski & Lee, 1991). Participation in constructive recreation programming helps to ensure that desirable peer associations are formed and appropriate socialization occurs.

Peer association has been shown to be a strong predictor of deviance, especially delinquency (Warr, 1993; Agnew, 1991; Brown et al., 1992), and association with drug-using peers is among the strongest predictors of adolescent drug use (Shilts, 1991). Shilts (1991) examined the relationship between early adolescent substance use and extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes. He found that there were three distinct groups: abusers, users and non-users. The abusers consistently reported less involvement with family and almost twice as much involvement with friends. In addition, the non-user group reported significantly higher involvement in extracurricular activities as compared to the user and abuser groups (Shilts, 1991).

Although there is research indicating that extensive friendship networks and peer ratings of sociability have been associated with increased likelihood of drug use, Terre et al. (1992) found that peer popularity had no significant influence on health-related behaviours such as physical activity,eating habits, smoking, alcohol use, and stress. This finding suggests that positive peer-group influences may not necessarily be naturally occurring (Terre et al., 1992).

3.54 School-Related Issues

A review of the literature by Roggenbuck et al. (1990) indicated that there were considerable gains in factual knowledge, recognition memory, and leisure skills during leisure engagements. There was little evidence or research focusing on attitude change and cognition levels of learning. Variables such as cognitive development and the familiarity/novelty of the environmental setting affected the degree and nature of learning.

Bergin (1992) examined the "learning activities" notion that was proposed by Ellis and Rademacher (1987). They divided the different types of activities in which adolescents engage during their leisure time and found that they could be categorized into relaxed, transitional, and learning activities. Upon examining this concept, Bergin (1992) found that leisure activities and intrinsic motivation to learn could predict in-school achievement. The number of leisure activities and number of hours spent in leisure activities correlated positively, but weakly, with GPA. Pursuits such as reading, writing poetry, or writing short stories during leisure time is strongly related to school achievement (Heyns, 1978).

A study performed in Trois Rivieres compared the behaviour and academic performance of primary schoolchildren receiving 5 hours (experimental group) vs 40 minutes (control group) of physical activity per week (Shephard et al., 1977; Shephard, 1980). The experimental children aged 7-11 consistently showed improved grades over the control group (validated by provincial exams). Eighty percent of the teachers favoured the physical activity program and thought the program had a positive influence on the behaviour and character of the children. Physical activity participation during the school years has also been negatively associated with delinquent and criminal behaviour (Marsh, 1990). In addition, kids who were regularly active were less susceptible to stress, performed as well or better academically, exhibited positive attitudes about school and themselves, were less aggressive and played better with other children (CAHPER, 1992). Thomas et al. (1994) concluded that the benefits of chronic exercise on cognitive function are small but reliable for reaction time, math, and acuity, especially for females under age 16. Thomas et al. (1994) cautioned that there is little longitudinal data to base the cognitive benefits of exercise, especially for children.

3.55 Community-Related Issues

Impact of Wilderness Challenge Programs

The use of wilderness challenge rehabilitation programs has grown rapidly over the last three decades. With this growth, a significant amount of research has been generated (Hunter, 1984). Indeed, out of all the research that relates to leisure and deviance, wilderness challenge programs have received the most attention in both the recreation and criminology fields, with the most common subjects being inmates of youth camps, participants in work programs like the YouthConservation Corps, participants in Outward Bound type testing situations, and adolescent delinquents in outdoor rehabilitation programs (Burch, 1986). However, the impact of wilderness programs can be more generally applied to all youth. Reviews of a wide range of studies concerning these types of programs revealed four general benefits: improved work attitudes, habits, and skills; increased ability to get along with others; increased self-confidence; and improved basic orientation of life (Burch, 1986). Gibson (1979) emphasized the promise wilderness programs offer as an effective intervention, stating that:

While many of the empirical studies are of questionable validity due to methodological shortcomings, it is clear that wilderness programs can and do result in positive changes in self concepts, personalities, individual behaviours and social functioning of the program participants. Therapeutic wilderness programs are then, a potentially powerful, albeit largely unrecognized, alternative to traditional therapeutic interventions. (p. 30)

These benefits can have a positive impact on all youth, not just the juvenile delinquents which studies focus on.

Research examining the impact of wilderness challenge programs, such as Outward Bound, has shown that although no significant long-term reduction in recidivism rates were realized, a reduction in the seriousness of subsequent criminal behaviour in which program participants engaged did result (Kelly & Baer, 1971; Castellano & Soderstrom, 1992). Wright (1983) stated that a clear positive difference was experienced by his experimental group in the areas of self-concept, locus of control, personal efficacy, self-empowerment, and cardiovascular fitness after taking part in a wilderness program. A positive change in self-concept was also reported by Chenery (1981), McDonald and Howe (1989), O'Brien (1992), and Crompton and Sellar (1981). These studies found that there were significant positive effects on self-destructive behaviour, sociability, academic achievement, social consciousness, hopelessness, social pessimism, self-confidence, sense of self-competency, sense of empowerment, sense of excitement, sense of acceptance, and racial integration. A review by Backman and Crompton (1984) suggested that critical thinking, problem-solving, and conceptualization abilities were improved with outdoor education experiences.

A study conducted by Partington (1977) examined the impact of Project WILD (a program conducted in wilderness areas north of Ottawa-Hull, Canada) on self-concept, academic achievement and behaviour. He found no positive impact on the program's participants but sites a number of variables that may have contributed to the program's failure. Limitations included difficulties with program funding and recruitment, high personnel turnover, high experimental mortality, inadequate cooperation from social agencies, and incomplete institutional records (to measure academic achievement) (Partington, 1977).

Impact of Community-Based Programs

Community-based multiple intervention programs offer a number of services aimed at impacting youth-at-risk positively. These services may include after-school tutoring, scouting activities,cultural events, recreational and art activities, drug education, ethnic identity programs, and individual and group counselling (Roundtree et al., 1993). Community-wide interventions focus on activities and programs that foster competence and pro-social relations through interactions with peers. Typically, recreation is a prominent component of the services included in these programs. Empirical research in the area of community-based programs has reported a number of positive impacts including an improvement in school achievement and interest, improved communication with parents, hopefulness about the future, decreases in recidivism rates and antisocial behaviours by participants, and increases in self-esteem (McKay, 1994). Although municipal parks and recreation departments are starting to offer community-based programming, it is agencies like the YM-YWCA and Boys and Girls Clubs who usually utilize this approach. Research in this area has concentrated on addressing the issues of school achievement, anti-social behaviour, crime, substance abuse, and homelessness.

A study by Roundtree et al. (1993) studied parents' perceptions of their child's behaviour and attitude before and after participating in a community-based intervention program. Their findings showed that there was improved school achievement and an increase in school interest. There was also significant improvement in the areas of willingness to help at home, time spent doing homework, hopefulness about the future, communication ability, and amount of time spent talking with parents.

Programs involving physical activity and recreation in remote communities in Northern Manitoba have helped reduce negative social behaviour, including a 17% reduction in crime in communities participating in the programs, whereas communities without the program demonstrated a 10% increase in crime (Winther & Currie, 1987). Children demonstrated gains in skill competency and exhibited less anti-social behaviour outside the home and in the school setting as a result of taking part in a recreation program operated in two Ottawa public housing projects (Jones & Offord, 1989). Improvement in pro-social behaviour was also noted by Feldman et al. (1983), who indicated that the type of treatment, leadership experience, and especially group composition exerted an impact on behaviour measures. The more a youth is at risk, the more treatment methods that need to be incorporated in recreation programs. This is also true of the training needed by the leaders who work with youth-at-risk. The further along the continuum (Figure 1) that a youth is, the more experience and training that is required by the leaders to be effective in their endeavours. Finally, it is important that antisocial youth be integrated with prosocial peers in order to encourage positive socialization.

Barton and Butts (1990) examined the recidivism rates and seriousness of crime exhibited by juvenile delinquents who opted to take part in a comprehensive youth training and community involvement program as opposed to incarceration. There was an initial decrease in the amount and seriousness of crime that was committed by the subjects who graduated from the program. Although the recidivism rate differences between the experiment and control group became insignificant by the end of two years, the reduction in seriousness of crime appeared to be persistent.

In addition to the issues of academic achievement and crime, community-based programs also have an impact on substance abuse and homelessness. Rancourt (1991) explored the effect of acommunity-based program on female substance abusers, including a group of adolescents. The program included regular recreation activities. Recreation participation increased playfulness (ie. made them feel like a kid again) and self-esteem. Participants gradually became more proactive in their decision-making, and discovered the benefits of recreation including a sense of acceptance, fun, increased confidence, alleviation of boredom, distraction from drugs, improved ability to cope, and a sense of being high without drugs. Perdue and Rainwater (1984) noted that alcohol consumption often takes place in conjunction with leisure time pursuits. They suggested that community-based alcohol abuse prevention and treatment programs for adolescents cannot be structured on the premise that providing recreational opportunities will automatically reduce alcohol abuse. Rather, the intent must be one of leisure education where individuals acquire attitudes, skills, knowledge, and behaviours which enhance the social benefits of their leisure choices.

Kunstler (1991; 1993) has examined the importance of recreation in preventative and intervention community programs for the homeless. Studies have shown that homeless children tend to have delayed social and emotional development, suffer from dependency, aggressiveness, withdrawal, sleep disorders, abnormal social fears and poor physical coordination. Recreation can provide the opportunity to develop the interpersonal and physical skills needed to address these variables. Recreation can also be a normalizing experience in an uncertain environment (Kunstler, 1991). However, successful programs must be community-based (Kunstler, 1993). Programs should include social skills training, assertiveness training, stress management, creative self-expression, leisure education, and exposure to community resources. There is a need to develop communities that understand, support, welcome, and take responsibility for the homeless. Shared recreation participation has the power to maximize values of equality, mutual respect, and normalization leading to social integration and group cohesiveness (Kunstler, 1991).

Impact of Sport

A review of the sport literature provides direct and indirect evidence suggesting an association between recreation and the alleviation of youth-at-risk variables. Research conducted on the general effects of sport participation resulted in the identification of a number of psychological and social benefits. These benefits constitute indirect evidence for the recreation/deviance association as they meet many of the needs expressed by youth-at-risk.

The literature indicates that athletes tend to be less deviant than non-athletes, regardless of gender and socioeconomic status (Hastad et al., 1984; Thorlindsson, 1989; Segrave & Hastad, 1984). In addition, Wankel and Berger (1990) concluded that sport participation had a positive impact on enjoyment, physical health, the psychological well-being factors of anxiety and depression, socialization, intergroup relations, community integration, educational attainment, social status and social mobility.

Hastad et al. (1984) revealed that the extent of sport participation had little effect on deviancy, and that important profile distinctions between sport participants and non-participants included deviant associates, peer status, and personal values. This is consistent with earlier findings which indicated that the most powerful predictors of deviance in both athlete and non-athlete samples were themeasures of delinquent associates, attachment to school and value orientations. Non-athletes were more likely to associate with deviant peers and less likely to be attached to school and express a conventional value orientation (Segrave & Hastad, 1984).

Melnick et al. (1988) reported statistically significant positive impacts of perceived popularity and educational aspiration variables on sport participation. Also, girls who are active in sports are 92% less likely to use drugs and 80% less likely to have an unwanted pregnancy (Institute for Athletics and Education, 1993).

Studies addressing the effects of sport on self-esteem have concluded that increased self-esteem is a benefit of sport participation (Iso-Ahola et al., 1988; Melnick et al., 1988; Smith & Smoll, 1990). Higher self-esteem and a greater sense of self-mastery were associated with athletic participation (Melnick et al., 1988). Iso-Ahola et al. (1988) found that it was the quality of the sport experience and not the quantity that determined whether or not the sport increased self-esteem. Smith and Smoll (1990) also cite conditions under which a positive change in self-esteem is likely to occur. Results showed that athletes who had low self-esteem reacted more positively to highly supportive coaches, and negatively to those who were relatively unsupportive. Individuals with high self-esteem were less affected by the behaviours of coaches, although an increase in self-esteem was experienced in connection with supportive coaches for this group of children as well.

The impact of physical activity and sport participation on socialization has been studied quite extensively since the early 1900's (Cowell, 1960; Coakley, 1993). Early research consistently showed that positive socialization can take place through physical activity. Throughout the 1970's, studies continued to report similar findings. Landers and Landers (1978) found that interscholastic athletics positively impacted socialization. They also noted that other extracurricular activities had the same effect. Being involved relieves boredom and gives opportunity to socialize with peers (Landers & Landers, 1978), which is a significant motivation for taking part in these activities (Straub & Felock, 1974). Landers and Landers (1978) also noted that the rate of delinquency is lowest when adolescents are involved in athletics and service/leadership activities.

Serok and Blum (1982) looked at socialization as a two part process (awareness of rules and conformity to rules), and examined how athletics could contribute to this process. It was found that there were no differences between delinquent and non-delinquent boys in willingness to participate in games, their conformity to peer expectations, and their choice of competitive games. This indicated a strong desire to be involved and socialize with peers. Delinquent boys did violate rules more often, reacted more aggressively to other rule violators, and denied more often their responsibility for rule violation. This suggested that delinquents were aware of the rules and norms of behaviour but were unable, or unwilling, to conform. However, as encouragement and rewards for conformity increased during the game, rule violations by the delinquent boys decreased, thus indicating that socialization occurred (Serok & Blum, 1982). Research addressing sport socialization in the 1990's has continued in this area (Coakley, 1993). In addition, research has also looked at the negative socialization associated with competitiveness (Coakley, 1993).

Research conducted by Segrave et al. (1985) measuring the delinquency of ice hockey players competing at different levels provides an example of how sports can have a negative impact on its participants. Findings showed that there was no significant difference in total delinquency involvement between ice hockey players and non-athletes; however, ice hockey players reported significantly higher levels of violent delinquency than non-athletes. It was suggested that ice hockey players actually learn violent behaviour as a result of their participation, and may therefore become predisposed toward behaviour of an aggressive, antisocial sort (Segrave et al., 1985).

It should be noted that attempts to research the relationship between sport participation and youth-at-risk may be biased due to the fact that many deviant-prone individuals may have already self-selected themselves out of the athletic sample (Segrave & Hastad, 1984; Landers & Landers, 1978). Studies have shown that high-risk youth express a preference for adventurous, non-competitive, informal activities and avoid conventional sports (McKay, 1994).

Though it is beyond the scope of this report to elaborate on all related issues, it should be noted that participation in some sports, especially at competitive levels, can increase certain risk factors for youth. Some of these risk factors include psychological burnout; excessive parental pressure to succeed; exposure to, or involvement in, spectator violence and/or violence in sport; sport related injury; and the use of steroids and/or other performance enhancing agents.

Television and Video Games

Playing video games has become a popular leisure pursuit for youth whether it be in an arcade or at home (Ellis, 1984). Many adults claim that video games are addictive and that arcades facilitate deviant behaviour. Ellis (1984) discovered that video arcades instigate or facilitate deviant behaviour among relatively few youth. These few are also more likely to be at the arcade late at night and experience weak parental social control. Ellis (1984) also found that those youth who visited the arcade before 10:00 pm had better academic achievement than those who did not visit the arcade at all or those who visited after 10:00 pm.

Huff and Collinson (1987) surveyed youth in a custody centre to examine the link between criminal behaviour and gambling/video game playing. They found that many (over 50%) committed an offence to finance their habit. "Criminal" video game players were younger, started playing earlier and more frequently, spent all of their money playing, and reported more relationship problems (Huff & Collinson, 1987). Although these findings were inconclusive, they do indicate that a subculture is forming which intensifies the problems of gambling. Other studies have shown that the use of video games can be a valuable tool in therapeutic recreation for improving self-esteem and perception of efficacy, competence, control, freedom and independence (Ellis et al., 1993; Maughan & Ellis, 1991).

Evidence of concern over the potential behavioural impact of violence on television has been commonplace in recent years. Unfortunately, the controlled research examining the relationship between televised entertainment programs and aggressive behaviour of children and youth is scarce (Stipp & Milavsky, 1988). Because youth aged 15-19 spend at least 2.2 hours per day watchingtelevision (Lindsay et al., 1994), this is an important area for future research.

3.6 SUMMARY

The positive relationship between physical activity/recreation and a reduction in risk factors for youth has extensive historical roots. The definition of youth-at-risk has evolved over the years and may be conceptualized on a continuum ranging from low risk to chronic deviance. Many factors predispose youth to behavioural risk factors. These predisposing factors include variables related to the individual (self), family, peers, school, and community. The current situation in Canada suggests that there is need for concern about youth-at-risk, and that efforts to minimize risk factors for youth will provide diverse personal and social benefits. Governments have recognized this area of need and have many programs in place to address issues related to youth-at-risk. Unfortunately, there appears to be little consistency in, or coordination of, policies and programs across Canada. Strategies involving physical activity/recreation appear particularly promising in minimizing risk factors for youth. Physical activity/recreation participation can provide positive benefits related to psychological health, physical health, familial interaction, peer influence, academic performance, community development, and other lifestyle behaviours. The documentation supporting the enormous potential of physical activity/recreations programs to positively influence youth-at-risk cannot be ignored. As Active Living proponents try to instill an appreciation for regular physical activity in all Canadians, youth-at-risk may stand to benefit the most.4. FOCUS GROUP RESULTS

4.1 INTRA-GROUP RESULTS

4.11 Administrators/Policy Makers

Concerned, committed, candid, and cautious would be an accurate and quick description of the 109 administrators/policy makers who participated in the sixteen administrator focus groups. As with the other groups the administrator focus groups were conducted in eight rural, and eight urban communities, including two aboriginal administrator/policy maker focus groups. The administrator/policy maker focus groups represented a vast array of administrators who lead organizations whose focus related to youth and/or recreation or physical activity (see Appendix C for more details). Fifty of the administrators/policy makers were female and fifty-nine were male. Generally, all the administrator/policy maker sessions were well attended with full participation.

Administrators' view of recreation and at-risk youth:

Collectively, the administrators/policy makers had a very broad and enlightened view of the three terms: recreation, physical activity, and at-risk youth. Their concept of recreation ranged from a state of mind resulting from an activity, to the activity itself. Those that perceived recreation as a state of mind described it as a sense of achievement, satisfaction, and positive feelings that resulted from a free-time, freely-chosen activity. The other group described recreation as the activity itself, albeit active or passive, team or individual, structured or unstructured, from sport to drama, to hanging out in a drop-in centre. Recreation would include doing nothing, reading a book, or pulling a cartilage playing rugby as long as it resulted in a positive experience. This comprehensive and holistic view of recreation allowed the administrators/policy makers to see the potential of all forms of recreation and physical activity. Given that most of the administrators/policy makers were not recreation/physical activity professionals it was surprising not to have a narrower physical recreation/sport orientation to the term recreation. The more comprehensive holistic view was clearly held by administrators/policy makers from many organizations. The administrators also thought recreation was an adult term that youth, especially those at-risk, did not recognize or place value in. Recreation and recreation organizations meant nothing, or at best had minimal value to at-risk youth.

The term at-risk youth, or youth-at-risk, did not have the same degree of consensus. While most administrators saw all youth-at-risk, others suggested that only those youth that had demonstrated specific behaviours or characteristics were at-risk. Those who shared the view that all youth were at-risk saw all youth struggling in the community for a variety of reasons including mental, physical, spiritual, financial, emotional, social, and educational. All youth were seen as under stress and therefore at-risk. Youth were also at-risk because there was a strong possibility that any youth could be the victim of abusive behaviour or negative social circumstances, and not necessarily from being the perpetrator of that behaviour. Other administrators/policy makers felt that all youth were not at-risk, and to label all youth as at-riskwas an injustice that may prejudice their future. They felt that organizations and youth workers must be careful not to incorrectly label all youth as being at-risk. A few had the attitude that the youth were not at-risk at all and that the problem was our labelling: "just because they can't reach some of our standards may not put them at-risk but we still label them", or "we are trying to impose our values, judgements, rights on the kids, ---well they have rights".

The administrators/policy makers believed youth were at-risk because "life had presented them a set of circumstances that they cannot cope with", or that life had not presented the same opportunities as others who were more fortunate because of a lifestyle or social situation, and as a result they were not able to reach their full potential. At-risk youth had dropped out of school for various reasons, were under or unemployed, suffered from low to no self-esteem and self-worth, and they lacked a sense of direction and self-confidence. The administrators also believed that these youth received little to no support from their family and community, came from broken homes, suffered from poor quality of parenting, and felt excluded from their family and community.

Benefits of recreation and physical activity:

Collectively, the administrators clearly understood and appreciated the benefits and impacts of quality physical activity/recreation services, and they could succinctly articulate an extensive range of benefits and impacts. To put this in context, it is important to note that the vast majority of the administrators/policy makers represented organizations other than physical activity/recreation organizations. Their comprehension of the value of physical activity/recreation services to youth was a surprise. As one social services administrator summarized: "it (physical activity/recreation) is a building block for every physiological, psychological, sociological (aspect), ---there's social, physical, mental, spiritual, ---there's team play ---there's everything".

The administrators and policy makers saw physical activity/recreation as an opportunity for youth to explore making choices, to experience success and failure in safe acceptable situations, to learn to be team players and experience interdependency, to be accepted and rejected by peers, to develop social interaction and leadership skills, to gain self-esteem and self-worth and confidence, to develop physically and to learn new life coping skills, to learn to be a part of a community and to experience a sense of community, to experience a sense of belonging and being a part of something, and, to have fun, an opportunity to laugh and cry. Physical activity and recreation were also seen as excellent ways for youth to cope with stress and to build a healthier lifestyle and wellness. Besides being seen as an excellent gateway to a wonderful assortment of benefits, physical activity and recreation were also viewed as a pathway out of: poverty, a negative family situation, a poisoning peer group, a sour community situation, and spiralling self-doubt. Activities opened new networks of people, new opportunities and doors never considered. The extent or depths of these benefits and impacts were also clearly understood by the administrators and policy makers, as one administrator from a youth and crime coalition stated: "recreation (and physical activity) is critical", the comment was based on a recently completed needs assessment of 600 local youth (mostly at-risk). There was unanimous and boisterous agreement.

Youth's constraints to participation in physical activity and recreation:

Money, money, and money would be the three most common constraints to participation by youth and their families as perceived by the administrators and policy makers. The view that youth and their families, if they had one, were continually and totally constrained by the ever constant demand for registration fees, equipment costs, travel expenses, etc., was persistent across all administrator and policy maker focus groups. There was a general acceptance that the public recreation systems, that were historically targeted at youth-at-risk and other disadvantaged groups, were shifting away from these groups due to an ever increasing demand for more revenue and resulting higher prices. The cost of participation initially kept these people out, or drove them out, and then kept them out.

Besides the direct financial constraint, problems related to a lack of were more pervasive in that it created a class barrier for many youth and their families. Lacking the financial resources of the middle to upper class the administrator and policy makers felt that the at-risk youth and their families, for the most part, lacked the values, attitudes, experience, awareness, even clothing to feel accepted and comfortable in many public recreational activities and centres. There was, they felt, pervading class discrimination in many physical and recreation services.

The administrators and policy makers also identified generation and gender as possible constraints. They believed that the youth-at-risk would view the current buffet of traditional physical and recreation activities as "adult" focused, and reject them out-of-hand. Such activities as volleyball, or jogging were "wussy", "adult owned" (and therefore not acceptable), "boring", and "not accepted by their peer groups". In short, many current services just were not their thing. There was also a strong and widely held feeling that most of the activities offered represented an inherent gender bias towards male activities, and that the young women at-risk were not being adequately served, or even heard.

Other constraints that the administrators and policy makers perceived minimized youth participation and enjoyment of physical and recreation activities were:

1. Lack of family and parental support. Many parents or guardians simply did not care about their children's activities and interests. There was not any direct encouragement to participate, nor was there any activity value or behavioural pattern in the family to act as a model. This constraint was identified as very significant by every focus group. Most laid the total responsibility for the youth-at-risk issue at the parents, or the lack of quality parenting.

2. Formal and often inflexible structure of current services. The administrators and policy makers felt that the youth did not like the prescheduled, predetermined, and team approach used in many physical activities and recreation services. The structure was the antithesis of what many, but not all the youth were searching. A few expressed the view that what these youth wanted "clearly doesn't fit in our delivery system and challenges some of the basic guidelines that you follow".

3. Lack of adequate transportation. For many administrators and policy makers transportation that was expensive, inappropriately scheduled, and sometimes not available was perceived to be aprimary constraint. For many rural youth the transportation just was not there, and when provided it was inappropriately scheduled for both rural and urban youth. Related to this was the perception that current scheduling patterns and venues of current services did not match the scheduling needs and interests of the at-risk youth.

4. Lack of service awareness and appreciation. This group had the impression that the youth did not know what services were offered, or that the various physical activity and recreation agencies existed.

5. Interpersonal constraints. Such factors as low self-esteem, low self-confidence, negative pride, and perceived lack of necessary skills prevented the youth from participating.

Organizational constraints to youth's participation:

Youth were not the only group facing constraints to their participation in, and satisfaction from, physical and recreational activity. Ironic as it may seem, the organizations that existed to serve youth also faced a steeplechase of barriers that prohibited them, in varying degrees, from working with at-risk youth. The most prevalent organizational constraint was the internal policies and structures that systematically prevented the organizations from providing services to the at-risk youth. Included were: insurance that prevented smoking in the building, a union or services contract that limited support staff availability and resulting building hours, personnel policies and procedures that prohibited the organization from hiring youth and native workers who did not meet the normal professional standards, fears and policies around liability and the offering of nontraditional program services, policies on acceptable behaviour and dress that restricted the participation of at-risk youth ---"we ban the kids we should be working with and really need our help". These internal constraints were echoed in some variation in every administrator and policy maker session. The comment that "we are our own worst enemies" was constantly repeated in varying forms.

Another systemic constraint identified in many administrator and policy maker sessions was the middle-class bias that they felt was inherent in most physical activity/recreation delivery systems. The committees, boards, commissions, and councils that were responsible for most recreation and physical activity delivery were seen as representing white-middle-class values and activities. As a result these decision makers did not relate to, or understand the issues, problems and needs of the at-risk population and were, therefore, unable to provide appropriate services. While most of the focus group participants believed this bias or constraint as unintentional - an error of omission, some viewed it as intentional and with malice - an error of commission. The administrators/policy makers who held this view were of the opinion that "the community looked at these kids with disdain, ---did not want to help them, ---did not want their taxes going into services for these kids", and that many services were targeted at white-middle-class youth and were deliberately designed to prevent the at-risk youth from entering and mixing with their kids. One elected official stated this sentiment: "we must have certain standards and keep them out". Some focus group members believed that some community members would react quite negatively if they knew that public funds were being used to help at-risk youth, it would be seen as attracting these youth to the neighbourhood and encouraging or condoning their behaviour. As a result therewas a minority view that limited resources should not be redirected from normal services to help the "one black sheep".

Related to this systemic bias was an occasional negative and mistrusting attitude towards the at-risk youth, and perhaps all youth; and reoccurring open door philosophy that blamed the youth themselves for the lack of services. A few mistrusting administrators and policy makers expressed a need of adult supervision for the at-risk youth "... would trash the place" and they "can't accept responsibility". Others blamed the youth for not using current services and/or for not making their interests known: "they are the hardest people in the world to program for"--as if it was their fault, or "this age group has problems identifying what they want and that is part of the problem". A pessimistic view that "even if offered (what they wanted) the kids are probably not going to use them" was also evident in a few focus groups. The open door philosophy was evident in such comments as: "if they come to me...and make a proposal...we would look at it...nobody has contacted me yet" with the expectation that a small group of nonestablishment grade 6, 7, 8 & 9's would put together a brief for a city council or board of directors; or the idea that what is currently there is fine and all that has to be done is to persuade or force these youth to enjoy the programs: "there are a lot of recreation services and we should be trying to convince them to come to those ---such as needle point"; "just go and pick them up and take them to a ball game, they may not like it at first but they will learn".

Another systemic constraint that was constantly identified by the administrators and policy makers was the lack of awareness of, and communication and resulting cooperation between, various organizations that had youth, and at-risk youth as part of their mission. The focus groups could identify a significant amount of duplication, and gaps, in youth services because of this lack of awareness and communication. Many believed that the necessary resources (services, facilities, money, personnel) to help the at-risk youth were already in the collective systems (education, recreation, social services, justice, etc.). They also felt that due to this lack of awareness and communication, and sometimes professional territoriality and suspicion, and that there "are no points (in the system) for cooperation and collaboration...", the resources were being wasted, and the youth were paying the price. The administrators/policy makers suggested that this lack of inter-organizational cooperation was probably related to the lack of a holistic approach, and this was identified in most of the focus groups as a constraint. Too many professionals and their respective agencies only focused on their mandated issues.

Other systemic or structural constraints discussed but did not receive any depth of support were:

1.The lack of financial resources to provide services to at-risk youth and still maintain current level of services.

2.Lack of understanding by decision makers of the role and benefits of physical activity and recreation.

3.The short term view of most politicians restricted their ability to view the at-risk problemin long term system solutions.

4.The lack of physical activity and recreation personnel trained in the issues and needs of youth-at-risk, and in the process of working with this population.

5.Overemphasis by recreation delivery systems on sport, and elite sport in particular, and the resulting narrow view of the program spectrum. Related to this constraint was the view that recreation/physical activity agencies were solely in the services delivery business and not in community development.

6.Lack of awareness and understanding of the nature and scope of youth-at-risk and their recreation needs and interests.

Program considerations:

From the perspective of the administrators and policy makers at-risk youth were interested in both structured and unstructured (although the majority would rate the unstructured as the ones that would interest the most participants) program services that ran the full spectrum from passive to active, individual to team, indoor to outdoor, and soft to hard adventure; the interests would vary across the youth spectrum and be based on individual interests and needs. The key issue was to treat them as individuals, to listen to their needs and not to stereotype them as all wanting or needing hard adventure programs, or military style camps. Administrators and policy makers felt strongly that the youth, like any market group should be given a wide range of selection, and be active in the planning and operation of the service. The perception was widely held that program services for youth-at-risk should offer the opportunity: to be apart of a group and to socialize ---even just to hang out, to learn to share, to be dependent, independent and interdependent, to be both leader and a follower, to be needed and to feel that you contributed and make a difference (ie. to volunteer at a seniors' lodge or centre, or with underprivileged children). There was disagreement on the amount of adult supervision and rules that should be applied in any program service for the at-risk population. Some felt that there should be a great deal of adult control and youth were looking for structure and set boundaries. Others thought there should not be any adult supervision ---only youth determined and regulated, while others compromised and said that youth-at-risk programs should "appear to be without adult supervision". The most common at-risk service that administrators and policy makers felt was missing and/or needed was a youth drop-in centre based on youth concerns and needs and was planned and operated by youth ---a place to hangout, to watch movies, to listen to music.

The administrators were clear in their opinion of what the youth do not like - over-organized activities with a formal structure and rigid time schedule. They were, as a group, also very clear in that the at-risk youth did not want to be lectured about moral and legal rights and wrongs, or to be told what to do with their lives during the recreation and physical activity ---they wanted to enjoy it for the joy of the activity.

Key success variables:

When asked about the variables that they believed, or had witnessed, to be important to successful program initiatives for youth-at-risk all the administrators and policy makers stated that the level of structure was paramount. The most frequent answer was less to no structure. The other idea that received just as much support was the idea that the direct leadership, the person planning and running the program, was very important. Most of the participants felt that this person must be especially trained in youth issues and youth communication, be more a youth/street worker with training in physical activity and recreation, and be accepted by, and perhaps come from, the local youth groups. Besides the direct leadership, the administrators and policy makers strongly felt that the total program initiative must be youth (at-risk) driven, they must be trained and empowered to make all the decisions regarding the services.

The interest, support, and commitment displayed by the parents/guardians and family were also identified as key success variables. They believed that any initiative would have a slim chance of success without backing coming from the home. Also important was the support coming from the whole community, and not just the family. The community must recognize that the youth are the total community's responsibility and must accept their part in helping youth over troubled waters. Related to this was the belief that a program must be offered through the partnership of various community organizations, must be funded over a long period (ie. 3-5 years), and the delivery agency must have a clear and unrestricted mandate that is not susceptible to public pressure.

Prevention or intervention:

During their discussions the administrators and policy makers were divided in their view of the prevention or intervention role of recreation and physical activity. While most felt that the main role was prevention of various health, social, emotional, and spiritual problems, there were quite a few who believed in the power of physical activity and recreation as a intervention for young people who were experiencing problems in their lives. There was a strong consensus that physical activity and recreation values, attitudes, skills, and regular participation habits should be developed in children at a young age. Many were of the opinion that the younger that these values, attitudes, skills, and participation habits were instilled in our youth, the greater the impact and the more effective the inoculation. The view must be long range.

Role of Government:

Federal: Most administrators and policy makers saw the role of the federal government as one of funding, program initiation, research, and education. The first to mind, the most common, and often the only suggestion, was funding. The federal government should be providing financial assistance and start-up funds for new initiatives in physical activity/recreation for youth-at-risk, for a national education/promotion program on the benefits of physical activity/recreation programs for youth-at-risk, and for an ongoing research program. Quite a few groups suggested that the federal government should initiate a national physical activity and recreation program for youth-at-risk including a national education/promotion program, national standards in program quality, systems and leadership training, matching grant funds available through the provincial/territorial governments for local and regional programs, and to entice provincial/territorial governments into the development of provincial/territorial policies, funding, and programs. Many focus groupparticipants proposed a program initiative similar to Active Living. A continuous, longitudinal research program that examined the impacts, and different delivery models, of physical activity and recreation is needed - "much like the current research". One participant also suggested that the federal government stream-line the current multitude of youth services that run across a variety of government departments and agencies so that the youth, their families, and community youth workers can make sense, and more use, out of the present services.

Provincial/Territorial: The most common proposal for the provincial/territorial governments was to carry out the recommended federal program initiative, and to adapt it to local conditions and needs. Many felt that each provincial and territorial government should develop their own policies and programs for physical activity/recreation targeted at youth-at-risk. The participants suggested that these policies and programs be developed and implemented in cooperation with the various provincial/territorial departments that have youth and/or physical activity and recreation as a primary or secondary mandate. The participants were very emphatic that the duplication and overlap at the provincial/territorial level must be terminated. Provincial and territorial departments must, like their federal counterparts, look to new nontraditional partners to develop new initiatives for working with the youth-at-risk. An example given was a parenting -family unity program with social services and community health agencies. Quite a few of the focus groups discussed the need for the provincial/territorial governments to help local and provincial organizations with funding, program assistance, and staff/volunteer training to ensure the initiation and continuance of quality programs. Provincial/territorial departments should help local physical activity/recreation agencies in shifting from a program delivery, to a community development role. Also frequently recommended was the need for changes in provincial/territorial legislation to reduce the liability of individuals and organizations when working with the youth.

Municipal/Local: Most focus groups believed that local government, but not necessarily the local recreation department, should provide leadership in the development of local strategies to offer increased physical activity/recreation services for all youth and particularly for at-risk youth. The general opinion was that a coalition of local organizations, be they public or private, profit or not-for-profit, must be developed that would carry the responsibility of initiating a coordinated, community driven series of programs for youth-at-risk. This was succinctly stated by one participant:

"it denotes that there is someone who is responsible, that holds the ultimate responsibility for the problem. This perspective has done more damage than anything. It goes along with the idea that there is a magic activity, or that there is an approach that will solve all our problems and that's not true. These are complex problems that require a different approach and way of thinking, no one around the table can do it"

Many strongly believed that to be successful the "problem" and the solutions must be accepted and offered by the community themselves, and not just the local government: "we must move away from the 60's and 70's concept of the hired expert who solves your problems for you, we must move backto a community healing process where the community takes responsibility for causing and solving its own problems".

4.12 Frontline Workers

One hundred and nine frontline workers participated in the 16 focus groups (48 females, 61 males). The participants represented a diverse range of professionals and volunteers who are in contact with youth regularly (see Appendix C for more details). The results of the focus group discussions will be organized according to the issues presented for discussion.

Definition of Youth at risk:

It was noted by some that youth-at-risk was a relatively new term, while others thought it was overused. Some frontline workers found the term offensive and suggested it inappropriately labelled youth. "Issues facing youth" was suggested as a replacement term. The majority of participants were comfortable with the term and found it appropriately descriptive. The definitions given by the frontline workers were often operationalized as those already in trouble (ie. PINS or further down the youth-at-risk continuum - see Figure 1). Therefore, both intervention and prevention strategies were expressed by many of the participants.

The frontline workers had very different opinions as to the age range of youth-at-risk. Some of the age ranges suggested included 11-15, 0-21, under 16, 13-24, 12-18, 9+, 16-24, 12+, 4+, 10+, grade 2+, high school, 6-19, <18, 5-18, 12-25, and 15-24. There was little consensus in this regard, though the majority of participants believed that youth-at-risk should refer to ALL youth from birth to adulthood, or that youth-at-risk are basically teenagers.

Characteristics or comments used to describe, define, or identify youth-at-risk included:

-heading for trouble - family life, problems at school and with police, angry at world

-youth with potential of bringing danger on themselves and others - mostly in leisure time

-low income, single parent background

-low self-esteem

-not finishing education (optional or kicked out), unemployment bound, if not in school at risk because of too much spare time, no opportunities/lack of choices

-living in home with physical violence, sexual abuse

-dysfunctional families, emotional abuse, poor parenting, drug/alcohol abuse - parental role modelling is key - if drugs and alcohol are problems, youth are ear-marked from the time of conception

-less respect for adults/authorities

-overweight children, underweight children - nutritionally at risk - economic factors

-sexually promiscuous, teen pregnancies, diseases

-not just low income, variety of backgrounds

-youth are at risk if their physical or psychological health is in danger

-at risk of developing fetal alcohol syndrome; of hurting themselves, or others; of reoffending

-is all or none - at risk or not - no continuum - in contrast, all youth are at risk

-at risk of following a trouble maker - susceptible to peer influence

-is a genetic based problem

-two distinct groups 1) in trouble because looking for adventure/excitement 2) deeper psychological problems - need to address each differently, not all the same

-small number of youth provoke most of the problems, get others involved

-any youth without opportunity

-physical, mental, emotional deprivation

-going to school puts youth at risk - not a controlled situation

-person is in an environment that may lead to conflict with that environment

-children who have no where to go, fallen through the cracks - traditional services have missed them

-youth who are outside of societies norms

-lack of coping mechanisms

-youth who smoke

It was highlighted that youth-at-risk are loyal to each other and protect each other, demonstrating that good qualities also exist.

Role of physical activity/recreation:

The role of physical activity/recreation in alleviating risk factors for youth was a dominant discussion topic during the focus group meetings. Some participants restricted their thoughts to sport, though most had a more broader perspective on physical activity/recreation. A few frontline workers suggested that for some youth-at-risk, physical activity/recreation would not provide any benefit. In general, it was believed that physical activity and recreation could benefit youth-at-risk by:

-improving self-esteem, self-image, self-respect, and opportunity to succeed

-providing positive role models

-instilling a sense of belonging, teaching teamwork, positive interaction, cooperation, and social skills

-promoting self-confidence

-giving youth something to do, keeping them off the street, away from abusive home situations - in the past youth had chores or self-arranged activities, not any more

-providing a constructive use of time, some structure in youth's life, relieves boredom

-providing a means of venting frustration and anger - just like drugs and alcohol

-making youth feel better - physical activity is an upper

-allowing youth to feel "connected" to something

-helping to reduce or control obesity and related self-esteem problems

-providing a positive experience - "the only access to positive (good) news is in the sports section"

-helping to keep youth in school - varsity team participation provides a reason to go

-promoting morals and values surrounding "fair play", and respect for rules

-providing flexible opportunities, no skill or ability necessarily required

-providing an opportunity to be "free"

-providing a good proactive/preventive approach to alleviating risk

-educating/counselling youth about the use leisure-time

-providing a "halo effect" promoting smoking cessation, reduced drug dependency, etc.

-providing a vehicle from which relationships can develop

-teaching cognitive, leadership, and life skills (sharing, discipline, winning, losing)

-providing a safe environment for youth

-providing an opportunity for racial integration

-developing motivation for other aspects of life

-providing a sense of community

-promoting the wellness of youth

It was noted that physical activity/recreation can replace some family experiences not available to youth-at-risk, but to maximize the benefits, they also need family support. Physical activity/recreation provides only transient positive impact and therefore must be incorporated into one's lifestyle. From a programming perspective, recreation activities need to be culturally sensitive.

Some frontline workers noted the negative aspect of sport activity. They highlighted the fact that sports can be a source of failure for youth due to a lack of skill. As well, some parents forced their children into activities, or had them involved in too many activities, thereby increasing the stress felt by the youth.

What are you currently doing in this area:

Most of the frontline workers indicated that they offered some physical activity/recreation related programs that could directly or indirectly impact youth-at-risk. The majority of the programs however, were not specifically directed towards youth-at-risk. Many of the traditional programs and services available to youth were mentioned, for example: Girl Guides/Boy Scouts, traditional sport programs, drop-in programs (YM/YWCA, Boys and Girls Clubs, Maison des Jeune, Friendship Centres), Big Brothers/Big Sisters, church youth groups, parks and recreation programs, and cultural festivals. In addition, there were many well designed programs that were rather fragmented and based on local or individual initiatives. Some examples of these initiatives include:

-Why me? program at the YM-YWCA

-separation and divorce support group at YM-YWCA

-mentorship program leader corp, ages 12-18, match up with mentor/role model

-support for underprivileged kids exists (financial - for fees, equipment) through service clubs, agencies, etc. - programs not well known (for obvious reasons), parents of youth-at-risk usually too lethargic to utilize them, pride factor as well (analogous to food banks)

-crime prevention committees have youth representation

-AIDS awareness programs

-public health efforts to counsel/work with youth with low self-esteem

-youth-at-risk in Halifax organized their own conference on issues they face ("Youth Voices")

-programs available through cultural awareness programs (interracial issues)

-Merritt B.C. is currently advertising for a Recreation Youth Coordinator

-no-alcohol pub/dance clubs are very popular in some locations

-"Dress a Champion" program sponsored by Esso to help provide sporting equipment to those in need

-Christian running clubs

-PAL program (Police Activities League) provides a variety of sport activities that the police conduct with moderate risk youth

-YM-YWCA's run Futures for Youth (involves a variety of programs addressing the future of youth such as education, life skills, employment - recreation is an important aspect of all programs)

-Partners for Youth (developed out of Mayor's Safer Cities Report) - interagency group (YM-YWCA, Parks & Recreation, Police, Community Services, School) established goals/actions needed to address youth issues and each agency runs its component of expertise

-Full Service School - holistic/wellness approach to youth, representatives from all agencies share common area, have day care services, involve parents, community school, open use of facilities

-Judo program started by police where delinquent youth sign a contract to attend judo classes instead of going to juvenile court

-MENS ONLY program run out of a community school (involves parenting skills, support group, and recreation with children - for men only)

What dictates program success:

The critical feature for improving the likelihood of a programs success is youth ownership. Programs directed at youth need input from youth. This comment was pervasive throughout all of the frontline worker focus groups. Other critical elements necessary for program success include access to facilities, funding assistance, good leadership (someone youth trust), flexible scheduling (24 hour access where possible), flexible and diverse programming, family support, community support, non-threatening/non-competitive environment, effective advertising, and easy access. Unlike traditional sport programs, it was felt that participation, not competition should be the focus. It is also necessary to acknowledge different skill levels and abilities, and structure group programs accordingly. Obviously the programs should be fun. Many of the focus group participants suggested that youth-at-risk particularly like programs involving risk-taking, adventure, and shared responsibility - "the more challenging the program, the more interest". Some thought that, where possible, programs should be designed to make a point, or provide a moral lesson.

The frontline workers suggested that a holistic approach be taken when providing physical activity/recreation programs for youth-at-risk. The programs should be designed to be incorporated as part of a healthy lifestyle. Youth need to be counselled that patience is necessary when evaluating skill or behavioural progress. Both the leaders and participants must have realistic expectations of the program's outcomes. Recreation programs cannot immediately cure all of the behavioural problems of youth. Often a lot of one-on-one interaction is needed. Many frontline workers suggested that former youth-at-risk or natural leaders from the established youth groups arethe best candidates to provide leadership.

Frontline workers expressed the need to perform ongoing evaluations of program efficacy and the extent of the youth-at-risk problems.

What dictates program failure:

In general, the converse of what dictates success, dictates failure. If youth are not empowered during the planning process, there is a strong probability of failure. Programs that are expensive, or require extensive fundraising efforts have reduced likelihood of success. Over-structured, adult-intensive programs decrease the probability of program involvement. The inability to access transportation and equipment can eliminate several youth from participating. Difficulty in accessing facilities, poor leadership, and gender or racial discrimination are also factors believed to be associated with unsuccessful programs.

Many youth-at-risk have poor self-image, and/or self-esteem. Consequently, the frontline workers believed that programs that emphasize extrinsic rewards, high skill levels, competition, and a high risk of failure will not likely succeed - "no one wants to be the last one picked for the team". In fact, an emphasis on winning/competition can actually create resentment against those that succeed, thereby making the problem worse.

Related agencies programming for youth-at-risk must maintain good communication to ensure success. If related agencies fail to assist one another, the likelihood of failure increases. This communication is also necessary to avoid duplicating programs and unnecessary competition. Labeling a program as "for at-risk youth" will probably decrease participation.

If the government or major funding agency is not committed to the program, the youth will act the same. For example, it is difficult to successfully advocate to youth the importance of regular physical activity when schools are progressively removing physical education programs from their curriculums, and there is a perception that governments view recreation as unimportant. A lack of community commitment to a recreation program can be particularly detrimental to a program's success.

Needs of youth-at-risk:

From a holistic perspective, the frontline workers believed that the needs of youth-at-risk included more family support and love (some kids go to school with no lunch, no hat in winter), someone they can trust ("relationships not systems"), peer support (acceptance), self-affirmation (sense of worth, empowerment, responsibility, to be listened to), discipline, employment opportunity (hope for success), education, safety, and money. Youth need a sense of togetherness, a sense of community, not segregation. "Kids also need a chance to be kids." Youth need a brighter future. There is a fatalistic attitude at present, that there is no chance to succeed, no control, and destined for unemployment. Frontline workers believed that youth-at-risk need better coping skills. Some youth just need a safe bed, a spot to go without questions, other youth just need attention. Generally, youth-at-risk need to improve their self-esteem.

All youth need opportunity. Youth who are discriminated against require gender and racial equality and improved cultural sensitivity and awareness.

More specific to physical activity and recreation, it was felt that youth-at-risk needed a place to hang out, like a drop-in centre but with little or no structure or organization. Many frontline workers suggested that activities involving outdoor pursuits (adventure-based, mountain biking, wilderness pursuits, Outward Bound) were good for youth-at-risk because those activities have low skill requirements, less structure, no evaluation, are non-competitive, require co-operation, have no body image expectations, but are challenging. "Youth-at-risk like video games because they are challenging but nonthreatening and safe - programming must be like this." Some youth need more than daytime programming, perhaps late into the night. This provides youth with constructive opportunities, otherwise they create activities, like "recreational vandalism".

Barriers/constraints faced by youth-at-risk and frontline workers:

Table 3 summarizes the barriers and constraints inhibiting youth-at-risk from regular participation in physical activity/recreation programs/opportunities. The table is divided into the constraints faced by youth-at-risk themselves (as perceived by the frontline workers), and the constraints facing frontline workers as they try to deliver the programs. Some of the frontline workers suggested that the root of the problem is the disintegration of our culture. Games are becoming more violent (e.g. hockey - as equipment improves), we are more tolerance of violence and sex in society, more youth are defined as at-risk now because the definition is changing ("if you slap a child now, it is abuse"), and societal values are changing, making the problems of youth-at-risk more complex at earlier ages. These larger changes in society are also perceived by frontline workers as barriers to the success of physical activity/recreation programs for youth-at-risk.

Who should take the lead role in providing/coordinating physical activity/recreation services for youth-at-risk?

In general, it was felt that a committee/coalition/collective of related partners (Appendix E) should be established to provide some central coordination and direction. Everyone must be invited to participate. This group should host meetings/conferences (like the focus groups from this research) to develop leadership, networking, cooperation, and information sharing. Youth must be invited as full partners. The media must be utilized to provide some exposure and positive energy towards the efforts.

Table 3: Barriers/constraints faced by youth-at-risk and frontline workers.

Recommendations made by frontline workers: (not in order of priority)

1.Leaders need to be well trained and properly educated (National Coaching Certification Program was mentioned as good).

2.A leader (organization, government department...) within the current infrastructure needs to be identified to begin the coordination of services and partnership development process.

3.Prevention efforts must begin early, as soon as children start school.

4.Empower youth in all facets of physical activity/recreation programming and service development.

5.Need to change the attitude of parents and make them more supportive of youth and physical activity/recreation. Parenting courses could be provided. Parents with children in foster homes should be required to take parenting courses to get children back.

6.Youth need a place to hang out (ie. drop-in centres). These facilities need to be found/created and should be equipped with what youth want (video games, pool tables). Youth must be consulted in the development of these facilities.

7.Need to enhance communication and networking between partners working with youth-at-risk. More cooperation among partners is needed - less territorialism. An inter-agency committee should be established.

8.Specific programming for each subgroup (preps, dirts, skaters, jocks, etc.) is needed to entice participation while acknowledging subcultures.

9.Activity sampling should be provided to let youth decide what they want to do. Flexible programming is required.

10.More research is required to improve our understanding about psychological make-up of youth-at-risk, how physical activity/recreation can assist them, and the impact of television/video games.

11.More open access to local gymnasiums is required.

12.Schools need more extensive intramural programs and more creative programming (because buses often leave right after school). Educators need to be more involved but need to be empowered and given the support and power they need to regain control in the school setting.

13.Each town should have a youth services co-ordinator to consolidate all relevant program andservice information. An information clearinghouse with one central number to call for all youth related services should be created to coordinate, orchestrate, and integrate existing programs.

14.Youth organized conferences for youth should be arranged and supported to identify issues related to youth-at-risk. Similar conferences with related partners delivering youth services are needed.

15.Mentorship programs should be developed and supported (ie. Magic Johnson with AIDS).

16.The elderly should be involved with youth. This provides a sense of importance in retirement and provides guidance for youth.

17.The media needs to be manipulated in a more positive manner.

18.Incentives/empowerment for therapeutic community development need to be established.

19.More resources are needed (funding, staffing). Some others feel that just some rearranging and organizing of services is necessary.

20.Skateboard parks need to be built.

21.A holistic approach should be taken for program/service development.

22.Need to inform the community of youth-at-risk issues - publicize the problems/issues. Use impressive statistics in press releases to inform the community of the impact of physical activity/recreation on youth-at-risk.

23.Programs should be accessible to ALL youth. Change from competition based programming to participation based programming.

24.Develop volunteer bureaus.

25.More cultural activities are needed for youth.

26.Programs need to be properly, and regularly, evaluated and modifications made accordingly.

27.Television programming needs to be revised to provide more constructive messages.

28.Youth leadership training programs specifically directed towards at-risk youth need to be developed.

29.More attention/emphasis needs to be placed on physical education in the school system.

30. Programs and services need to be provided that encourage family and community development.

31.Improved communication from bottom - up is required so that administrators and politicians are more aware of the real issues on the street.

32.Be action oriented.

4.13 Parents

It should be noted that the response to the parents focus groups was generally the weakest of all the group sessions, independent of location. Sixteen focus groups included a total sixty-six (66) parents, 16 male and 50 female, with a low average turnout of four (4). The exception was the group of 11 committed parents from the urban native community in Regina. Based on their voluntary participation, the general level of interest expressed in all the parent sessions, and in the shared personal situations, it can be safely assumed that those who participated in the parent discussions did so because of their interest in, and commitment to, their children and to physical activity and recreation. The parents quickly displayed their knowledge of, and belief in, the benefits of recreation and physical activity. The local organizers of the focus groups who attempted to match the parents with the participants of the at-risk youth sessions quickly realized that many parents were not at all interested in taking part in this research. They were the hardest group to get out to the sessions, and many who had committed failed to show. There can be no question that the parents involved do not represent the "normal" parent of at-risk youth, at least not based on the literature. Parents that participated were volunteer coaches and drivers, opened their homes temporally and in two cases permanently to other youth, turned in their own teens into local authorities, raised funds for their children's activities, and had an above normal attitude and pattern of physical activity and recreation.

Parents' view of physical activity, recreation and at-risk youth:

For the most part parents offered two differing ideas about the term recreation: activity based and benefits based. For many parents the term meant physical activities; they operationally defined the term by listing in rapid order: basketball, volleyball, jogging, fishing, hunting, camping, and any form of physical activity. Others suggested that passive endeavours such as hobbies, crafts, and even socializing or "hanging-out" could also be considered recreation. A few parents, however, based their idea of recreation and physical activity on the benefits gained from the activity. They saw physical activity and recreation as an opportunity to learn new skills, to meet others, to gain a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to "evoke a lot of positive feelings".

When asked their definition of youth-at-risk, most of the parents said that all youth in the community were at-risk. A few parents said that those at-risk could just as likely be the victim of abuse, and be the abuser. The parents further added that at-risk youth come from a low economic background, were in difficulty at school, were in trouble with the law, and come from single parent and/or dysfunctional families. These youth were characterized as having low self-esteem, as drugusers, as having attempted suicide, "hanging out", or in gangs. They noted that youth-at-risk lacked parental supervision and a stable-supportive family atmosphere.

There were a few parents that objected to the use of the term youth-at-risk. They felt that their children are labelled enough and that another label is not needed, and could be detrimental. They suggested that children are children, and should not be labelled. This concern over the label did not hinder the parents from recognizing, and discussing, the problems facing these youth.

Benefits of physical activity and recreation:

Every parent session agreed that physical activity and recreation were beneficial to all youth, including those at-risk. Benefits ranged from keeping youth busy, building self-esteem, giving youth a place to go, getting away from a bad family environment, to helping youth physically, mentally and spiritually. A few parents underlined the influence that physical activity and recreation plays. They said that had it not been for their child's involvement in physical activity/recreation, the child would not be where they are today.

Constraints to participation:

The constraints families encountered in getting their children involved in physical activity and recreation were many. Financial difficulties were mentioned in every parent focus group. These included lack of money for registration fees, equipment, facility rental, and for out-of-town travel. A $35 uniform for Girl Guides was as great a barrier as the $350 hockey registration fee for some. Families who received social assistance did not have the extra dollars for recreational activities. Many parents expressed a dislike for being put in a situation where they were the ones that had to tell their children they could not participate because of a lack of money. Many were also of the opinion that "it soon will be just the rich that will be able to afford to have their kids involved".

A related constraint was the time-work pressures that many parents face. There were many one-parent, even two-income, families that could not keep up with the time and money demands. There just was not any time, and/or money to have the kids involved. Many parents expressed frustration at this constant demand on money and time, of keeping up with the Jones, and the growing worry over the stability of their jobs. One parent's comment captures that feeling - he "was scared as hell with taxes and unemployment".

Another constraint reported by some parents was the stigma they and their children carried due to their social/economic situation. They felt that most of the activities were tailored for the middle to upper class, that most of the services were offered in the "uptown" sections, and that they did not have the skills, experience, or even the clothing to feel comfortable. They were also of the belief that many physical activity and recreation leaders and decision makers were not interested in helping others who are less fortunate, and/or were not trained in working with "downtown" youth and families.

A few parents also expressed concern over being criticized for leaving their children in programs with volunteers. They said that the demands on their time and pressures at home were the cause,and that the lack of sensitivity by the others compounded the problem. The parents of at-risk youth said that if they had a better paying job they would gladly get involved in the volunteer system. Until this happens they must concentrate all of their effort in "making ends meet" and do not have the time to volunteer.

Along with the time factor, every parent session mentioned transportation as a constraint. Many parents said that they do not own a car, and that the public system was inadequate. The constraint was compounded by their pride that prevented them from asking for assistance from other parents. As a result, their children were not registered or involved in activities.

Parents frequently mentioned the lack of information on programs and assistance available for physical activity and recreation opportunities. Some parents did not even know the existence of the recreation department in their community or how to get in touch with them.

One constraint that upset some parents was the lack of physical activity and recreation facilities and services that were available to their children in their neighbourhood. In particular, they could not understand why government funded school facilities had to be closed early in the evening and on weekends, especially when very few facilities and programs were available to youth at no cost.

A few of the parents also discussed safety as a constraint to participation. Their concern was letting their children go on overnight trips with adults they did not know or trust. The fear of sexual abuse was the reason behind their safety concerns.

Parents' perception to constraints facing youth:

When asked why they believed their children were not participating in physical and recreational activities, the high costs of registration and equipment were the dominant responses. Very few of their children had part-time jobs. If they wanted to get into activities, they had to find the money, sometimes illegally. Some children will not ask their parents for money to attend activities because they know they cannot afford it.

Discrimination between youth groups was an omnipresent constraint to participation in a number of communities. The reason for the discrimination varied from the way they dress and talk, the friends with whom they hang around, the status of their parents, to their ethnic origin and the colour of their skin. There was a low tolerance for difference. The parents felt powerless to combat this youth discrimination.

Most parents said that their children had not been asked about their physical activity and recreation interests, and they were not interested in current services. The parents believed that their kids did not participate in current services for they found them too structured, competitive, and sports focused. The kids saw the activities as too adult oriented and traditional, "they're not keeping up with the new activities, ---skateboarding", and "there seems to be nothing else offered by the community or the schools". The parents believed that the youth do not like to participate in the structured traditional programs for they lacked the necessary skills and feared failure.

Some parents recognized the important social role that gangs and street groups played. It was the activities of the gangs and groups that had to be channelled in a positive direction. These parents felt that, with proper physical activity and recreation activities, less time would be devoted to the group and their influence would diminish.

A few parents mentioned that their children showed little motivation or energy to participate in any activities. Watching too much television and constantly playing video games was cited as the cause.

Program considerations:

In discussing what they felt their youth wanted in terms of physical activity and recreation, the first and most common response of all the parent sessions was a place to hang out. They felt that the youth wanted to run their own youth centre; a drop-in centre that would have few rules, informal and ever-changing activity, offer various peer counselling services (ie. career, drug, sex), hot breakfasts and lunches, and was a safe place to hang out. A few parents felt that the centre should be "a place they can trash and visually correct themselves", and "develop their own (activity) choices but in a framework of some rules". Most parents said that drugs, sex, and alcohol should not be allowed.

The other most common discussion evolved around the idea of giving the youth the opportunity to state what they wanted, and to involve them in the planning and operation. Some parents suggested that besides the decision making, the youth should raise some funds needed to operate such a centre.

When challenged about what organization in their community should provide such a centre, and other physical and recreational activities, there was not a clear common answer. In four communities the municipal recreation department was suggested. However, this department was not mentioned in four other communities, even when the participants were pressed. Other suggestions included the recreation department and the school, (the school was never suggested separately), the regional district, city hall, and the community itself.

Prevention or intervention:

Prevention was the clear response whenever the parents discussed the two general roles of physical activity and recreation. Most parents believed that the focus should be on the prevention aspects of normal physical activity and recreation. They underlined the suggestion that the earlier this started, the better it would be. A few parents suggested that the intervention role was "worth a try" for there was a "50-50 chance" of success. Many believed that money spent on quality physical and recreation activities was "going to save money, because there was no wasted social worker's time, or the courts or police". They saw it as "preventive medicine that's going to save money in the long run".

Recommendations by parents:

Believing that recreation and physical activities were beneficial to their children, parents of at-risk youth, offered the following recommendations:

1. Financial Barriers:

Programs are needed to assist in paying for the registration fees and equipment purchases for low income families. The program has to be handled discreetly and with some sensitivity on the part of the physical activity and recreation agencies. Recreation departments should not become another social services department.

2. Consultation:

Parents were quick to notice that community leaders and recreation practitioners were not addressing youth issues in the community. More consultation is needed with parents and youth on the type of physical activity and recreation opportunities that should be made available in the community. Community leaders, including physical activity and recreation professionals, have to make youth, and especially youth-at-risk, a priority.

3. Facilities:

Instead of building new and costly recreational facilities, better use of existing school facilities should be considered. Also local and neighbourhood schools should be turned into community centres for youth. These centres have to be open in the evening, on weekends, and during the summer months.

4. Physical Activity and Recreation Programs:

More activities have to be devoted to children who are not interested in competitive sports. Activities have to be more challenging and interesting for youth. Youth must be consulted in the type of activities they want and should be given more responsibility. More attention has to be devoted to cultural activities and the diverse needs of a multi-cultural community.

5. Physical Activity and Recreation Staff and Volunteers:

Recreation staff and volunteers that plan and direct youth activities must be trained to deal with at-risk youth and their needs. Building self-esteem in youth should be a goal in all recreation and physical activity programs. These front-line workers and volunteers should represent the cultural make up of their community.

4.14 Youth

There were a total of 16 youth focus groups which consisted of 56 females and 79 males who, with the exception of one group of incarcerated youth, fell within the first three stages of the youth-at-risk continuum. Most of the youth had not heard the term youth-at-risk. The first things that came to mind for those youth who had heard the term included drug/alcohol addiction, school drop-outs, pregnancy, family problems, unemployment, crime, suicide, and runaways. Many felt that all youth were at-risk due to the above mentioned issues and the influence of peers. It was also noted that the term usually referred to youth who were not at risk of developing problems but were already experiencing problems.

What do youth like to do:

The most common activity engaged in during a youth's spare time was hanging out with friends in such places as the mall, in coffee shops, and restaurants. This was closely followed by driving around, getting drunk/stoned (partying), having sex, fighting, going to bars underage, skipping classes, criminal activity (shoplifting, car theft, break and enters, vandalism), playing pool, playing video games, watching television, going to the movies, and talking on the phone. A number of physical activity/recreation pursuits were also mentioned such as working out, swimming, playing in a band, reading, writing poetry/short stories, skating, running, and pick-up sports games including basketball, street hockey, hockey, and tennis. Many youth indicated that they did not have a lot of free time because of jobs, committee involvement, or looking after a child.

The organized or structured activities that youth reported being involved with included sports, drama, dance, music, scouts, cadets, martial arts, camping, rock climbing, student council and going to the local recreation centre (YM-YWCA, Boy's and Girl's Club, city recreation, youth drop-in centres). A couple of youth noted that going to the recreation centre was a last resort because it was boring. A number of youth did not know what was available to them in their community by way of recreation provision.

Most youth became involved in their respective activities through friends and family, especially siblings. Several youth indicated that it was their own initiative that lead them to involvement, usually to combat boredom and give them something to do in their free time.

Benefits of recreation/physical activity:

The youth interviewed in the focus groups recognized the importance of recreation in their lives and listed a number of benefits they felt they derived from taking part. These included:

- keeping youth out of trouble (crime, drugs, sex)

- relieve stress, tension, frustration

- improve self esteem

- makes you feel better, sleep better

- fitness, weight, body image

- gives youth something to do, relieves boredom

- meet friends, socialize, have fun

- recognition, status, respect, achievement

- develop leadership skills, confidence

- develop relationships with leaders (adult)

- employment opportunities

- gives youth a sense of belonging, ownership

Constraints/barriers to participation:

The issue of barriers/constraints to participation was another topic of discussion in the focus groups. As expected, youth cited cost, transportation, lack of time, and lack of skill as common barriers. In addition to these, youth also reported that they had nowhere to go, there was a lack of programming for their age group, there was a lack of family support, some youth experienced racialdiscrimination, and there was an over-structuring/over-regulation of activities by adults.

Further discussion also highlighted a number of reasons why youth stopped participating in an activity. These reasons were slightly different than those given for not participating in the first place. In some cases, youth were kicked out of programs due to aggressive behaviour and drug use. Many felt that there were too many rules, that the activities were always the same (boring), they were not good enough to play the sport, and the leaders were prejudice and unfair (showed favoritism). Sometimes youth stopped taking part in an activity simply because they were too old, for health reasons, pregnancy, the activity was cancelled, or their priorities changed (ie. school, work).

Physical activity/recreation background of family:

The recreation/physical activity history of the family was also investigated. The activities that family members took part in during their free time included drinking, watching television, attending meetings, cultural activities (ie. music, drama, painting), sports, reading, knitting, playing video games, talking on the phone, socializing with friends at bars, gardening, and criminal activity. When asked what activities the youth did with their parents/guardians/siblings, most responded that they did not do any joint activities - "it is not cool to do things with your parents". However, the activities that were reported included vacationing together, drinking/parting together, attending family dinners and reunions, and watching television/movies together. Playing pool, video games, cards, bingo, and sports such as boxing, hockey, golf, and swimming were also mentioned.

Developing their own facility:

A situational exercise was utilized in the focus group to establish how youth would meet the needs of their peers and what activities were most popular. The youth were given a plot of land and money to construct/develop whatever kind of facility they wished. The following is a description of that facility.

The facility would be a full service drop-in centre for ages 12-25 years that is open 24 hours/day. It would be centrally located (ie. near a school), and operated by the youth themselves with adult assistance. Full service means that the centre would provide educational opportunities (ie. alternative school programs); a health clinic; a residence; employment and parenting workshops/assistance; child care facilities; a coffee shop; counselling services; and a variety of recreational opportunities such as arcades, pool tables, skateboard areas, weight room, dances/parties, movie theater, performing stage (drama/concerts), horseback riding, camping, bowling alley, hobby/arts/crafts area, boxing ring, batting cages, amusement park, gym (athletic equipment for a number of traditional sports), a track, a football field, a 4x4 bike/truck trail, martial arts, a pool, rock climbing, and a fishing/hunting area.

The youth noted that a facility like this would need rules such as no drinking, drugs, fighting or vandalism. These rules could be policed by a security team of youth hired for that purpose. Although, most of the youth involved in the focus groups smoked, they felt that there should be designated smoking areas within the facility.

Suggestions were also made as to how this facility could be promoted and how an individual could convince a friend to get involved in the activities being offered. Promotion should include posters and flyers distributed in schools, malls, and buses. Also mentioned were advertisements on radio and in newspapers. The methods used to convince a friend to get involved included: bribery; coercion/threatening (ie. "you chicken"); use role models (ie. "Michael Jordan does it"); describe the activity - it's fun, interesting, exciting, risky; "everyone does it/goes there"; and, taking the friend to try it out. Youth did acknowledge how difficult it is to recruit teenagers for programs, even with promotion and peer pressure.

Needs, issues, and priorities of youth-at-risk:

The investigators asked several questions pertaining to the priorities, needs and issues related to youth. Table 2 shows the responses. The items raised by the youth were consistent with those cited in the literature. Youth generally felt that the community was not doing a good job of addressing youth issues. Agencies are not listening to youth, some do not recognize the problems that exist for youth, and, as the youth say, most agencies/committees are "all talk, no action". There were a number of specific examples of agencies/individuals who were doing something to address youth issues/needs. These included drug awareness programs in schools and detox centres, sex education classes held in school and community centres, social workers, guidance counsellors, YM-YWCA, Boy's and Girl's Club, school (teams), youth drop-in centres, recreation and parks departments, Big Brothers/Big Sisters, homes for battered women, group/foster homes, churches, and foodbanks.

Addressing the issues - recommendations by youth:

The youth made numerous recommendations for addressing the needs of youth. These recommendations reflect the priority of issues in their lives. Presented here are the ten most commonly made recommendations: (1) build/operate a drop-in centre that offers full services/holistic approach; (2) offer more and a variety of physical activity and recreation programs which are broader in scope (ie. include passive and cultural pursuits); (3) increase employment for youth; (4) improve educational opportunities; (5) give youth a chance to be heard; (6) encourage cultural harmony; (7) improve parenting/family situation for youth; (8) change adults attitudes about youth (issue of trust and stereotyping); (9) provide positive role models; and, (10) provide for the less fortunate youth (homeless, hungry, impoverished).

In conclusion, many youth seem to be pessimistic, and exhibit a sense of hopelessness about the future. They want to "live short and live happy". Often this attitude removes any inhibition for taking part in risky behaviours (i.e. drugs, sex, crime). A few youth indicated that although things did not look positive for themselves, they would like to improve the situation for the next Table 2: Youth priorities, needs, and issues (not in hierarchical order).

generation that comes along. Youth today are politically knowledgeable and know the legal and social system well. They are also very conscious of the education system and its shortcomings. In general, youth feel that they are discriminated against, misunderstood, and not given enough credit for knowing social issues, and having the ability to make their own choices and give their opinions on how to address the situation.

4.2 INTER-GROUP COMPARISON

Based on a review of the opinions and ideas that emerged during the four sets (administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, parents, and youth) of focus groups, and on the discussions of the research team, the following is an analysis of the similarities and differences across the various subtopics. The overwhelming observation after all sixty-four focus groups, and the discussions, is the significant amount of similarity in the opinions, issues, and ideas regarding the benefits and impacts of physical activity and recreation for youth-at-risk. The similarities were far greater than the differences.

Level of Interest: Interest in, and expressed concern about, youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation were extremely high in every focus group and community. It is quite surprising that with this level of interest that many more successful initiatives were not underway.

Concept of Recreation: For the most part, the focus group participants had a broad view of the term recreation. This view could be categorized as falling into two basic camps: (1) those that saw recreation as activity, and (2) those that defined recreation as the benefits that are derived from the activity. The group that conceived recreation as activity tended to be very sports oriented. However, there were those that included fine art, hobbies, and other more passive and cultural activities. The benefit based view included a wide range of benefits, including social, emotional, and physical variables.

Youth-at-risk: There were some differences between the groups in the way they viewed the term youth-at-risk. The administrators/policy makers and frontline workers tended to have a broad view of youth-at-risk for they suggested that all youth were at-risk. Youth who were in danger physically and/or emotionally, or who were struggling with any aspect of modern life were considered at-risk. However, the frontline workers, in many cases, operationalized youth-at-risk as those already in trouble. This narrower view of youth-at-risk was shared with the participants in the parent and youth sessions. They viewed youth-at-risk as those already experiencing trouble (ie. those youth who were substance abusers, school dropouts, runways, displaying criminal behaviour, in trouble with the law). The administrators/policy makers, parents, and frontline workers also described youth-at-risk from the dispositional view. These three groups all included the idea that youth-at-risk exhibited various lifestyle similarities suchas single parents or dysfunctional families. There was some concern by some participants about the use of the term youth-at-risk. Administrators/policy makers and the parents shared a concern over the use of the term and that the youth should not be labelled. The labelling could compound the issues already facing the youth and their families. This concern was not shared with the frontline workers and the youth themselves.

Benefits of Physical Activity and Recreation: All the focus groups were able to identify a vast array of psychological, physiological, sociological, and even spiritual benefits of physical activity and recreation. Whether the participants were actively involved or not, the importance of recreation and physical activity was evident through their level of activity and in their ability to articulate the benefits.

Activities Engaged In: There appeared to be a slight difference in the administrators' and parents' perception of the physical and recreation activities in which the at-risk youth participate, and the reported interests and activities of the youth. The parents and administrators perceived the youth to be involved, or interested in a regular variety of sports and recreation such as basketball, street and ice hockey, volleyball, and some newer nontraditional activities such as video games, and skateboarding. While the youth reported participation and interest in these same activities, they also reported extensive involvement in activities such as shoplifting, having sexual relations, drinking and getting drunk, using drugs, street fights and other criminal behaviour.

Constraints to Participation by Youth: Every focus group spent a considerable amount of time in considering the constraints that at-risk youth faced in participating or enjoying physical activity and recreation. There was a considerable amount of agreement upon the constraints that each group identified, and on the extent of their negative impact.

*Financial: The lack of money to pay for equipment, travel, and especially for registration was identified by all four groups (administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, parents, and youth) as a significant constraint. The family, and/or the youth did not have the necessary funds.

*Transportation: The ability of youth to reach various physical activity and recreation programs and facilities was limited by the lack of appropriate transportation. Whether due to inappropriate public transportation, or to the cost and availability of private transportation, the youth simply could not get to the programs and/or facilities at the scheduled time and/or location. All four focus groups agreed this was a problem.

*Lack of Information: All of the groups indicated that the lack of information on available physical activities and recreation programs was a very common constraint. Though services were offered, the youth were not involved because they did not know about the service, or that they could attend or made use of the service. Manyparticipants in every group felt that many families and the youth did not participate because they did not know that the service existed, or if they did know, they did not know the details or how to access the service. The administrators expressed a suspicion that many youth-at-risk and their families did not even know that a local recreation department existed. The parents and the youth groups confirmed that this was the case in many homes.

*Program/Services Structure: All four groups agreed that the rigid structure of many current physical activity and recreation services tended to act as a constraint to youth-at-risk involvement. The regulated and controlled nature of most sport leagues, fitness, and group activities was a barrier to the full participation of many youth-at-risk.

*Sport Focus: The perceived overemphasis by physical activity and recreation organizations on competitive sport programs was reported by all four groups as a participation constraint. The youth-at-risk were not interested in the highly structured and competitive nature of most sport programs.

*Adult Program Focus: Three of the groups (administrators/policy makers, parents, and youth) identified the adult program focus of most of the physical activity and recreation services and organizations as a participation constraint. The perception was that these services and organizations did not care about, or identify with, the concerns of youth; they were run by and for adults.

*Lack of Youth Services: The parents and youth groups tended to agree that there were very few youth oriented services available. The youth and the parents were often in agreement in their view that the kids had no where to go, and had nothing, or very little, to do. This lack of appropriate youth services was seen as a considerable constraint by these two groups. The administrators, on the other hand, thought most of the current services were fine for the youth and felt that they should be involved. Many administrators could not understand why the youth were not involved in current services. This difference of view about the suitability of current physical activity and recreation services may be a key difference between those who plan for youth participation, and the youth who participate. This perception of the existence of a youth program gap is essential information for future changes; the gap must be identified before action to correct the gap can take place. If the administrator does not believe that such a gap exists then nothing will be done.

*Time pressures: Both the parent and youth groups mentioned that lack of available time was a critical issue that youth faced in the physical activity and recreation aspects of their lives. With single parent, or two income families, the amount of time available for quality physical activity and/or recreation was minimal. The administrator and frontline groups did not discuss time as a constraint for youth.

*Class Discrimination: Two groups, the administrators/policy makers and the parents, perceived a middle-upper class prejudice that kept the services focused on the values and needs of that social-economic stratum. They believed the political system in most communities either did not see, or understand, or even care to see, the physical activity and recreation needs and wants of youth-at-risk. Many believed that this bias existed in most local physical activity and recreation delivery systems, and therefore acted as a constraint to the participation of those not accepted in these classes.

*Racial Discrimination: All of the groups perceived that racial prejudice was a constraint for most native youth. Many native youth did not feel comfortable or welcome in most "white " physical activity and recreation areas or facilities.

*Lack of Family/Parental Support: Three groups, the administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, and the youth identified the lack of support from the families and/or parents was a critical constraint to the initial, and/or continued, participation of at-risk youth. If this support, either through a family role model, or traditional family values and habits, was not forthcoming then the youth's participation was at-risk.

*Interpersonal Constraints: The lack of self-esteem, self-confidence, and fear of failure by the youth themselves was seen as a constraint by the administrators/policy makers, and the frontline workers. The parents and youth themselves did not see these interpersonal factors as a constraint to their participation.

*Lack of Skill: What the youth did identify as a constraint to their participation was their lack of skills. Whether those skills were social or physical it did not matter, they would not participate. This was also identified by the frontline workers.

*Television: Surprisingly the only group to identify television as a constraint to participation in physical activity and recreation was the frontline workers. All of the other groups did not perceive television as a constraint.

*Gender Bias: The administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, and a few youth identified a male bias in youth services as a constraint to youth participation.

Organizational Constraints: In addition to the constraints to participation faced by youth and their families, the focus groups also identified a number of organizational constraints. These internal constraints often prevented the various organizations who work with youth and/or physical activity and recreation from providing the necessary services for those youth who were at-risk.

*Internal Policies and Structures: Three groups, the administrators/policy makers,the frontline workers, and the youth identified the internal policies and structures as often being a constraint to the participation of youth-at-risk. These included the narrow mission of the organization that may only focus on younger children, or on adults, leaving the youth with little to no services. Union agreements and budget limitations were identified as often being a problem for they restricted access hours and the types of available services. The fear of liability action, and the cost of liability insurance, was identified as a constraint as it frequently prevented an organization from offering certain activities, (ie. adventure based programs, skateboarding areas). Also recognized as an internal constraint were the rules and regulations of many physical activity and recreation agencies and/or facilities regarding personal behaviour. Many of the youth indicated that they had been kicked out for their behaviour. The administrators noted that this practice (following the rules and regulations) often resulted in denying the kids who really need the benefits of physical activity and recreation those very benefits. "We are our own worst enemies."

*Lack of Interorganization Cooperation: Both the administrators and frontline workers pointed out the relatively small amount of communication, cooperation, and collaboration between local organizations which had youth and/or physical activity as a mandate. They were both of the opinion that this omission was an important reason as to why more was not being done for youth-at-risk, and why there was so such overlap and so many gaps in the system.

*Open Door Philosophy: The administrators and frontline workers were quick to point out that the traditional open door philosophy of most physical activity and recreation delivery organizations was a constraint to youth-at-risk's participation. The old "build it and they will come" or "come and get it" attitude of the last few decades will not necessarily work with most people, and particularly not with youth-at-risk.

*Lack of Holistic Approach: Three groups, the administrators/policy makers, the frontline workers, and the parents all indicated that the singular focus of many organizations that deal with youth-at-risk (ie. education, or recreation) was not only inefficient but was in fact a constraint. Since the problems and issues that youth-at-risk face in their lives are interdisciplinary, then so must be the problem solving approach. Not to take this approach may actually prolong or compound the problem.

*Lack of Understanding of the Role and Benefits of Physical Activity and Recreation by Political Decision Makers: This was a concern raised primarily by the administrators/policy makers, though some frontline workers and youth also recognized this as an organizational constraint.

*Short-Term Political View: Concern was raised by the frontline workers and theadministrators/policy makers regarding the lack of attention given to youth issues that are long-term in nature. Because the political agenda rarely exceeds the term of office, sincere commitment to programs and/or services that may not demonstrate results for many years is often lacking.

*Lack of Trained Leaders: A lack of trained leaders was an issue raised predominantly by the administrators/policy makers and frontline workers, though some of the youth identified the youth recreation leaders as being of poor quality.

*Lack of Understanding and Appreciation of Youth, Youth-at-risk, and their Respective Values, Needs, and Interests: All four groups stated, some directly, others more indirectly, than most physical activity and recreation leaders (professional, volunteer, administration, or political) had very little knowledge of the physical activity and recreation interests of youth-at-risk. The idea that these leaders did not necessarily care to know was also raised.

Programming Considerations: Another area where there was a high degree of consistency across all four groups was in their suggestions for program initiatives for youth-at-risk. All four groups suggested:

*A Broad Range of Programs: The participants strongly suggested that the traditional program focus on competitive team sport and adult and children's services should be expanded to include a wider range of activities, particularly nontraditional activities.

*Unstructured Initiatives: Physical activity and recreation organizations should develop a number of loosely structured services in which the youth can participate at any given time. The rigid timetabling, rules, and organizing was not conducive to youth participation.

*Empower Youth: Most every participant in every focus group was clear in his/her feeling that organizations must develop an organizational culture that trusts youth, and that allows youth-at-risk to have a active role in running their own services. These organizations must learn to communicate with, and empower the youth to look after their own physical activity and recreational needs. All four groups also suggested that while the youth must be given the opportunity to provide their own leadership, they should also receive adult supervision and guidance.

*Community Ownership: Most of the participants believed that the challenges facing youth could not be resolved by any one agency, or for that matter any particular group of agencies. They were of the opinion that the community itself must learn to accept the challenges of their youth as their own challenges, and not look to one or two agencies, outside organizations, or particularly to government, tosolve the youth issues in their community. The whole community, everyone, must be part of the solution.

* Youth Drop-In Centre: The only specific program suggestion that was loud and clear in every focus group session was the need of some sort of youth drop-in centre in every neighbourhood. The centre must be centrally located (the most common suggestions were either a shopping mall or local school), must have extended hours (ie. be open 18-24 hours a day, seven days a week), have few rules (youth determined), have some adult supervision, and provide a variety of integrated services including educational and career counselling (drug and alcohol education, health information), as well as physical activity and recreation opportunities.

*Leadership: There was a general consensus that the direct leadership for physical activity and recreation services was a key component of success. Many believed that to be accepted by youth, and to be successful, the leader must have a good understanding and appreciation of youth and their issues. Leaders should also be specifically trained in youth issues, behaviour modifications, community development, and in physical activity and recreation. The idea that these leaders should also come from the community (geographic and social) that they serve was pervasive.

Prevention or Intervention: The administrators/policy makers, parents, and frontline workers were in agreement that prevention should be the primary role of physical activity and recreation services. Most concurred that physical activity and recreation services can and should be used as an intervention in the redevelopment of youth-at-risk, but the first focus should be prevention; and to start with young children.

Community Leadership: When discussing what community organizations should take the lead role in initiating action for physical activity and recreation services for youth-at-risk, there was a variety of organizations listed. The list included the schools, city hall, service clubs, recreation departments, churches, social services, etc., and a variety of combinations of these agencies and others. No one particular organization received a unanimous response. While the local public recreation department was suggested by various groups it did not receive a high degree of support. Many believed that the local recreation department should be involved as a partner, but they did not believe that it was able to provide the necessary leadership. Most participants suggested that a community based coalition of youth services agencies had the only chance of success.

4.3 ABORIGINAL ISSUES

Native communities throughout Canada, on and off reserves, are going through tremendous social changes, and face a host of problems. These changes and problems are creating pressures on the native communities, families, and youth. After years of struggling with serious problems ofsubstance abuse, high unemployment, inadequate education, and poor economic futures, native leaders are starting to examine the problems in their communities and are exploring various solutions, including physical activity and recreation strategies. Consequently, two native communities were targeted in for this project. Selected were Big Cove, New Brunswick and Regina, Saskatchewan. Big Cove is the biggest native reserve in Atlantic Canada, with a population of approximately two thousand, and has been plagued with at least ten (10) teen suicides in recent years. Regina was selected as it represented an urban based native community.

Based on the results of the eight native focus group meetings, it appears that, in general, the native and non-native issues regarding youth-at-risk and recreation/physical activity are similar. The magnitude of the native problems in most cases are larger, but recreational barriers to youth-at-risk are similar. Therefore, the following summary of the eight focus group meetings will highlight the issues that are predominantly native.

Administrators/Policy Makers:

The lack of physical activity and recreation organizations on native reserves and in native communities was identified as a major constraint to participation, and had a direct negative impact on all youth. Reserve administrators stated they were not able to get people to volunteer their time and assist in the establishment of recreation organizations and program initiatives. The few that wanted to help usually were not committed and wanted to be paid for their services. As a result, few initiatives and programs were started. Most reserve administrators felt that to be successful, native people need to lead the way in the establishment of their own recreation/physical activity opportunities.

In terms of physical and recreational activities, the administrators felt that the traditional "white" activities were appropriate for native youth. However, they added that physical and recreational activities should be used to promote native traditions and culture. Therefore, many administrators, in both the urban setting and on the reserve, suggested that traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, dancing, and art should be available. With both offered, the youth would have an opportunity for integration into "white" activities, and to maintain native activities and values. Some administrators felt that all-native teams should be established for participation in non-native activities.

Another constraint identified in reserve and native urban communities was the lack of qualified physical activity and recreation leaders. Without knowledgeable and committed leaders few organizations and programs can survive within the native communities. The recreation associations and clubs that have managed to get off the ground were usually inadequately run, or had difficulty recruiting volunteers. Apart from the physical education that some native children obtain at school, few recreation opportunities exist.

The lack of parental commitment to, and involvement with, their children and the community were frequently mentioned as a significant constraint in both urban and reserve settings. The administrators felt that the family, not just the at-risk youth, needed to be considered as a whole. Developmental programs, including physical and recreational activities, should be initiated that help the family unit to face its own challenges. Most administrators believed that physical activity and recreation efforts directed towards youth-at-risk should not be isolated from the other social and economic needs and solutions.

Lack of funding for physical and recreation activities was identified as another problem. In the urban setting, funding for native activities was in competition with the needs of the "white" community. In addition, recent budget cut backs further eroded the funding available. There was no specific budget allocation for native physical activity and recreation. Lack of available funding from the Federal government and Band Council was identified by reserve administrators as the reason for the lack of physical activity and recreation services, and for the lack of a full-time physical activity and/or recreation leader. The administrators speculated that the lack of funding may be attributed to the absence of a policy on physical activity and recreation for the native community in Regina, and on the Big Cove reserve.

Coupled with the lack of funding, the high registration fees and equipment costs for physical activity and recreation in the "white" community was also a constraint to participation. The administrators felt that most native families could not afford to have a child, let alone two to three, involved in most activities.

The few native families that can provide their children with physical activity and recreation opportunities faced discrimination by the non-native community. Administrators and policy makers believed that native youth, especially those living in an urban environment, were seriously affected by this class disenfranchisement. These "kids had less experience and values, and have experienced less success in the "white" recreation and physical activity system. This makes them more resistant to normal "white" approaches and activities. The lack of native role models, trained leaders, and coaches compounded this barrier". Native children and the parents did not feel comfortable or welcome in most "white" activities. Unfortunately, the typical small population of the native community and participants did not allow them to set-up their own activities. This was identified on the reserve and in the urban environment. A few native administrators expressed concern over what could be labelled as a "white, middle-class bias" that was ingrained in the delivery system of physical activity and recreation. Many believed that the "white"-"uptown" council did not see or understand the needs of local native kids. They did not "buy into their problems", and the "white" decision makers were not "willing to change from their uptown focus".

Both the reserve and urban administrators stressed the importance of forming partnerships to develop a healthy native community. They believed that to be successful the partnerships must include the two levels of governments.

Frontline Workers:

Native frontline workers echoed the same issues as the administrators. Not knowing the constraint placed on administrators, the frontline workers were quick to criticize the administrators for not putting enough money or emphasis into physical activities and recreation. They felt that fundingwas not the issue, rather proper leadership and the use of money was the problem. The focus group participants perceived that band councils and other native leaders were usually more preoccupied with the tremendously high unemployment rate of natives than the lack of physical activity and recreation opportunities for youth. Frontline workers believed that physical activity and recreation issues were not high on the list of Band Council priorities. Also, they admitted that the benefit of recreation was not known in the native community compared to the white community.

When asked of the role of recreation/physical activity, frontline workers mentioned such things as building self-esteem, creating discipline, venting frustration, providing a sense of belonging, and leading to a balanced and holistic lifestyle. Recreation was also seen as a way to teach native youth the importance of their culture. Understanding their culture could further build self-esteem. The needs of youth were believed to be parental guidance, peer support, and involvement in the decisions that affect them. These were all similar to things mentioned in the non-native focus groups. The need to become comfortable with their native identity within a "white" world, and the discrimination they faced at school and in the community were the main native based issues.

Frontline workers, like the decision makers, mentioned the need to develop linkages with other agencies within the native community such as police, health, schools, social agencies, churches, and other First Nations. The community surrounding the native reserve was also mentioned as needing linkages with natives. In forming contacts with the "white" community, education and awareness of native culture would have to take place. Natives seemed willing to educate the "white" community on the importance of their culture and what it means to them. Another important linkage was the school system. Schools can educate the youth and prepare them for the future. The frontline workers felt strongly that closer relationships with parents, teachers, and the community were necessary to resolve some youth-at-risk issues.

The factors leading to successful programs as cited by frontline workers were: structure, leadership, commitment, facilities, funding, and hand-picked volunteers. They also mentioned accountability as an issue. They believed that some administrators and Band Council members should be held responsible for money that the frontline workers felt was being wasted and used for unintended purposes. They suggested that the native community, band councils, and governments should be accountable to the public.

Parents:

The issues identified by native parents were generally the same as all other parents. Native parents tended to share with non-native parents the same concepts for physical activity, recreation, and at-risk youth. Both groups of parents saw prevention, not intervention, as the primary function of physical activity and recreation. They also identified the same group of benefits from participation in physical activity and recreation, and outlined similar activity interests for their children.

There were, however, some major differences between native and non-native issues including: the severity of their social and economic situation, constraints, who they would look to for services, andprogram needs. Many native parents reported having little money, had lost control of their children, and received little support from their community. This negative home situation was frequently compounded by sexual abuse, drug and alcohol dependency, and poor parenting. The parents often felt powerless to change the situation, and they were not optimistic about the future.

Many constraints to participation faced by the native parents matched those identified by non-native parents. Both groups experienced financial constraints, inadequate transportation, and inappropriate services for their youth. The differences in the perceived constraints were mainly related to cultural differences. The native parents felt that many physical activities and recreation services currently offered were not specific to their traditional culture; for example, swimming is not a traditional native activity, yet it is one of the most common services offered. Most native parents felt that there should be a greater balance between traditional native and non-native activities. Urban native parents felt discriminated against by the "white" community. Their children were not welcome in "white" activities, teams, and homes. The lack of a tradition of family involvement in physical activity and recreation was also seen as a constraint to youth participation, as was the lack of family caring and discipline. The lack of native leadership was also noted.

Most native parents said that they would look to their own native community and organizations for leadership in providing physical activity and recreation. They would turn to the band office, or another native organization, and not the local "white" recreation department or schools. This would be in spite of their belief that native leaders were not putting enough emphasis on physical activity and recreation.

Suggested activities also varied. Native parents wanted to see a balance between native and non-native activities. Native activities such as dancing, trapping, native art, snowshoeing, bush survival, and ice fishing were suggested. The native parents also strongly believed that a native recreation/youth leader was needed.

Some urban native parents mentioned the need for the community to go through a "healing" process. They suggested that the native community must get together and find their own solutions. They felt that the "white" community should not, and will not, solve the problem.

Youth:

The Native youth were not much more optimistic than their parents. They encountered a great deal of discrimination in the "white" community, which was commonly cited as a barrier to participation. Other constraints included cost, transportation and parent involvement/commitment. Like all of the other youth, they wanted to be consulted on physical activity and recreation programs. They would like a place to meet where a variety of programs, both structured and unstructured, are offered. They suggested hosting youth conferences, increasing employment opportunities, and raising awareness about their culture as ways of addressing the needs of Native youth.

The Native youth wanted to stay in touch with their heritage. They felt that recreation and physical activities could help in the education of their culture. However, youth were not clear aboutwhat type of activities they would like in order to promote their culture and heritage. Youth also felt that recreation could prevent drug/alcohol abuse, reduce irresponsible sexual activity, relieve boredom, increase self-esteem, and provide recognition/status.

Recommendations from Native participants:

To increase physical activity and recreation opportunities for native at-risk youth the native focus groups recommended the following:

1.Native families need assistance in the parenting of their children. Various social and health service agencies need to address community issues with a holistic approach. Partnerships with the schools, church, recreation, police and especially native organizations need to be formed.

2.The Federal and Provincial governments along with native leaders need to discuss the issues of community development for natives. Partnerships from the two levels of government along with native leaders are needed for the establishment of strategies to develop a healthy community. The concept of a healthy community model must be approached with the whole community involved, including a strategy for recreation services.

3.Full-time native recreation leadership is required in urban native communities and on native reserves. The native recreation leader would be responsible for organizing leadership courses for volunteers, obtain information on what is available in other communities and through government, and initiate new programs in the community.

4.Better use of existing school facilities is needed. The school should become a community centre for all native children. Also, the school should be always open for their children.

5.Public consultation is needed to discuss ways to develop recreation activities in the community. This consultation must include all youth, particularly those at-risk.

6.Linkages are needed with the white community to explain the native culture. Together, a way has to be found to eliminate discrimination of natives.

4.4 OTHER CULTURAL ISSUES

Youth constitute an above average share of the population reporting visible minority origins (Lindsay et al., 1994). In order to adequately address the needs of youth in Canada, specifically those at-risk, cultural issues affecting youth and their families must be discussed.

In 1991, 7.9% of all those in the visible minority groups were aged 15-19, whereas people in this age range only represented 6.8% of the total Canadian population (Lindsay et al., 1994). Relatively few youth were immigrants in 1991; 63,595 or 9% of all youth. However, the majority of youthimmigrants came from Asia, Central or South America, the Caribbean or Bermuda, or Africa (only 27% of the 15-19 year old immigrants were European), resulting in a dramatic cultural change for many of these youth and their families.

Focus group discussions highlighted a number of cultural related issues that need to be addressed by physical activity/recreation providers. The most commonly cited issue across all focus groups was the need for agencies to be more culturally sensitive to the traditions of different ethnic groups. It was felt that due to ignorance, many practitioners were guided by stereotypes of ethnic groups in their interaction with those youth and their families. This often resulted in discrimination being experienced in school and recreational settings. This feeling of discrimination was also felt in the communities in which minorities settled. However, a number of youth noted that although they did feel discriminated against in the community and at school, it was often the recreation setting that offered them an escape from these attitudes. As one boy said, "when I am working out on the weights and I need a spot, someone will always help no matter what their skin color - we're just a bunch of guys doing our thing".

Another issue that was raised was communication. Many parents of minority youth cannot read or write english/french. Therefore, promotions for programs were not understood and their children were not aware of the programs. The language barrier goes beyond mere advertisements. If an individual cannot speak the language, it is hard for them to phone and ask for information on programs.

Other cultural barriers to participation were noted. Individuals in the focus groups reported that in some cultures women are not allowed out after dark, are not permitted to wear exercise clothes (ie. swimsuit or shorts), nor are they allowed to take part in co-ed activities. Female youth are sometimes expected to come home immediately after school and look after domestic chores as cultural roles demand. Although there were fewer restrictions reported for males of other cultures, it was noted that sometimes there is an expectation for male youth to work after school, thereby limiting them from taking part in extracurricular activities such as clubs and school team sports. Studies have shown that gender differences are often heightened by ethnicity (Carrington et al., 1987).

Focus group results indicated that there may be a number of culturally related issues that constitute barriers to physical activity/recreation participation. Recommendations that were given to address this problem included: having more cultural events/festivals where members of the community could interact and share their different cultures; know the ethnic make-up of the community to ensure that communications take place in appropriate languages; hire or recruit volunteers of different ethnic makeup; offer female only activities; and, include programs/activities that are culturally familiar.

4.5 SUMMARY

The 465 participants from the 64 focus group meetings provided invaluable input into this research. All participants provided unique insight. The most striking observation from the focus group results was the degree of consistency between all focus groups. The administrators/policy makers, frontline workers, parents, and youth consistently identified the same major issues, with few contradictions. There was a range of definitions of the youth-at-risk throughout the focus group participants, but in general, there was an understanding that youth-at-risk were those youth who demonstrated characteristics consistent with undesirable behaviours. A significant group of participants, particularly the parents and youth, defined youth-at-risk as those already exhibiting deviant behaviour. Though some focus group participants had a narrow view of physical activity/recreation, most conceptualized the terms very broadly and incorporating a wide range of leisure pursuits. Throughout the focus groups it became increasingly apparent that there is incredible potential for physical activity and recreation initiatives to positively impact on youth-at-risk. Physical activity/recreation can help youth-at-risk by improving self-esteem, providing positive role models, teaching teamwork and social skills, promoting self-confidence, providing a sense of belonging, reducing risk factors for disease, giving youth something constructive to do, providing a means of releasing stress, promoting positive morals and values, teaching cognitive, leadership and life skills, providing an opportunity for racial integration, enhancing cultural awareness, providing a sense of community, fostering family support, and promoting the wellness of youth. Many organizations are currently providing programs or services directly or indirectly impacting on youth-at-risk. There was a general consensus that these efforts need to be better coordinated and advertised. Successful programs need to have youth spearheading the initiative. Programs also need to be flexible, accommodating, inexpensive (or free), with good leadership and community support. Programs directed towards youth-at-risk should be nonthreatening, emphasizing participation, and not competition. Outdoor adventure programming was believed to be appropriate for youth-at-risk. Many fiscal, logistical, and societal barriers/constraints make it difficult to provide the programs and services believed to be necessary for youth-at-risk. The need to empower youth, provide good leadership, establish parental support, provide increased government support, develop partnerships, create youth centres, reform current programming initiatives to reflect the needs of youth-at-risk, and continue research were repeatedly mentioned as the primary issues. The need to approach youth-at-risk issues holistically was also a pervasive attitude. It was felt that physical activity and recreation can provide both prevention and intervention functions.

In general, the Aboriginal issues were consistent with the major issues facing all at-risk youth. Specific issues of concern in native communities centered around discrimination, availability of leadership, poor parenting, lack of resources (human and financial), isolation, cultural identity, commitment to youth, and partnership development. Other non-native cultural issues include discrimination, communication difficulties (language barriers), gender specific limitations because of cultural traditions, and the lack of culturally specific programming. In general, it was felt that the focus group process provided the most comprehensive and insightful information gathered during this research.5. SUMMARY OF CURRENT CANADIAN INITIATIVES

5.1 RESULTS OF MAIL-OUT SURVEY ON PROGRAM INITIATIVES

A letter requesting specific information on physical activity/recreation programs or initiatives designed to address the needs of youth-at-risk resulted in a response rate of 30%. Of the 315 surveys that were distributed, 96 were returned. The responses represented 32 from the original mailing list and 64 through the pyramid process.

Geographically, Ontario was slightly over-represented in the distribution of the surveys due to the fact that the majority of national organizations have their offices located in that province. The geographical breakdown of responses can be found in Table 4.

Table 4: Geographical distribution of responses.

5.2 EXTENT OF CURRENT PROGRAMMING FOR YOUTH-AT-RISK

Of the 96 responses that were received, 20 indicated that they did not currently provide physical activity/recreation programs for youth-at-risk. However, most of these individuals noted that they were very interested in physical activity/recreation programming for that population and felt that there was a great need for it. An additional 3 responded that their organization was not applicable to the type of programming that was requested. In addition, there were several respondents who reported that they ran programs for all youth, which included those at-risk, but not specifically targeted to at-risk youth.

The majority of programs/initiatives that were received were preventative in nature, and targeted those aged 6-24 years. However, most of the programs were being offered to those 12-18 years of age. Clientele that these programs served represent the entire youth-at-risk continuum (Figure 1). They included: youth living in risky environments; uninvolved youth; potential school dropouts; youth with, or prone to, mental disorders; substance abusers (drugs & alcohol); steroid abusers; and young offenders.

A number of programs were specifically designed to meet the needs of female youth and those of different ethnic/cultural origins. Programming for female youth-at-risk was fitness oriented and concentrated on body-image and self-esteem. Of the 12 responses that indicated culturally specificprograms, most were native-based, with a few addressing the needs of "black youth". As well, various multicultural programming was reported; programming according to the ethnic makeup of the community.

Many of the respondents did not indicate whether or not their programs were evaluated. Some reported that no evaluation was done, while others mentioned evaluation by participants being completed at the end of the program. If the program was evaluated, success was usually based on the number of participants. Several respondents claimed that their program resulted in a reduction of vandalism, violence and drug use, tension between ethnic groups, and smoking. Others stated an increase in school attendance. There was no indication of how these claims were evaluated or substantiated.

Funding sources for the programs were also mentioned by respondents. Most programs were funded under the department/agency budget. Other sources included Health and Welfare Canada, Community Health Promotion Fund, United Way, Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, user fees, bequests, donations, gifts, and other government grants. A number of programs indicated that there were a pooling of resources and joint funding between agencies in a community.

5.3 MODEL PROGRAMS

There were a vast number of programs received from national, provincial, and local organizations; both government and non-government. The model programs that are presented in this section highlight some of the recommendations and issues that were raised through the literature review and focus groups. These include youth drop-in centres, community-based programming, partnerships, funding, evaluation, outreach programming, cultural programming, youth directed activities, alternative measures, media campaigns, and flexible time scheduling.

*"Program Integration" is a program for youth who have no other physical activity and/or recreation other than the services of the Boy's and Girl's Club in Thunder Bay, Ontario. To provide additional opportunities for youth, the Boy's and Girl's Club shares with the family the costs of getting the kids involved in other forms of physical activity and recreation, including those not offered by the Club itself. The program will initially cover up to 100% of the costs of a new service, this level is slowly reduced over time allowing the family to gradually increased its contribution. The program financially enables the youth to participate, to develop new recreation and social skills, and to broaden their social boundaries. Program Integration is funded by the Trillium Foundation.

(SOURCE: Thunder Bay Focus Group)

*Dufferin Mall is a 600,000 square foot, 110 store shopping mall in downtown Toronto, Ontario. Situated in an area containing six high schools, the mall had an average daily visitation of 3000 youth of mixed racial backgrounds. Besides the impact of 3000 youth hanging-out, the mall was experiencing 1000 to 1400 shoplifting charges a year, 50% of which were youth under 18 years of age. Other crimes such as armed robbery and rapewere also a concern related to the youth hanging out in the mall. The youth that gathered at the mall tended to fall into four different groups: (1) normal students, (2) students-at-risk, (3) school dropouts, and, (4) gangs. The gangs ruled the food court, drug dealers were moving in, and employees were so scared that they asked for police protection to make their night deposits. Following an early attempt at resolving some of the problems, the mall manager, David Hall, was able to establish an advisory committee made up of representatives from the youth, the Toronto Parks and Recreation Department, and a local Settlement House. Through the work of the advisory committee a partnership was established between the Dufferin Mall, the City of Toronto Parks and Recreation Department, and the Toronto Board of Education. As part of this partnership, the Toronto Parks and Recreation Department provided a youth worker who works with the youth in the mall to provide needed recreation and education services. The mall provided unused retail space for various recreation programs, ie. martial arts, dance group, and youth theatre. In addition, the mall provided funding to cover 60% of the Parks and Recreation Department's youth worker's salary; they get 40% of the worker's time. Programs established at the mall included:

•Marketing Co-op Program: a retail course offered by the mall and West Toronto Collegiate which has an enrollment of 50 youth (with a wait list). The youth retail sales and management students work in the mall's stores for experience. This program is funded through a $300,000 grant from the Federal Government.

•Re-Entry Program: a mall based high school program for youth 18 years of age and older who have been out of school for at least one year. The program is operated by Brockton High School.

•Drop-In Youth Centre: a vacant retail space donated by the mall and is run at noon-hour and after school. It contains billiards, board games, television, and stereo.

•Dufferin Mall Youth Service: a social service for youth in the 13 neighbourhoods around the mall. The service provides counselling for a case load of 40 youth.

•Recreation programs including a basketball program in the parking-lot, a hockey tournament, ball hockey and a soccer league for the youth.

•West End Bicycle Club: a spinoff of some original initiatives the Club refurbishes old bicycles and then gives them to neighbourhood kids who cannot afford their own. The Club also provides free bicycle repair and safety clinics. The mall provides the space for the Club and gets a bicycle delivery service in return.

The benefits to the mall have been significant. It's a nicer place to shop, crime is down 16%, better quality stores are moving in, operating costs are down, and a million more people a year are coming to the mall. The mall has received a marketing award for the world's best mall, and it made the National Inquirer.

(Source: David Hall, personal communication, October 17 & November 15, 1994)

*Northern Fly-In Sports Camps Inc. (NFISC) is a registered Canadian non-profit corporation based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. NFISC is dedicated to the development of positive leisure-time pursuits for children and youth living in remote native communities. The program has two phases. The first component of this model is the Instructor Training Session where 10-12 local youth received a one week workshop outlining basic administrative and program planning considerations for the operation of children's recreation programs. This training session also offers instruction in specific sports and recreation skills and suitable instructional techniques for the presentation of these skills to children and youth. The second phase of the program begins in week two when a team of NFISC Instructors comes to the host community and joins forces with the 10-12 youth who were trained in week one. Working together with volunteer RCMP, nursing, and North West Company personnel, the multi-activity program is delivered to the children in the community. Activities include sport, aquatics, creative art, and outdoor recreation. Traditional Native games are also integrated into this component. Native elders are encouraged to contribute to the activity component. Funding is received from the Manitoba Lotteries Foundation; RCMP; Government of Manitoba Departments of Culture, Heritage and Citizenship; Justice and Northern Affairs; Health and Welfare Canada; Employment and Immigration Canada; Manitoba Family Services; the Variety Club; Norman Regional Sport Association; Eastman Sports Development Council; The North West Company Inc.; and INCO. The Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Studies at the University of Manitoba has provided office space and administrative resources since the program was initiated in 1986. One important aspect of the Northern Fly-In Sports Camp program is the ongoing evaluation that has been incorporated since its inception. Results of the research has shown that there is a significant reduction of crime and substance abuse in the host communities.

(SOURCE: Winther & Currie (1993). Sports Camps: An Alternative to Delinquent Behaviour for Native Canadian Youth Living in Remote Communities. Published in Youth at Risk, Florida: Brigham Young University)

*Valley Youth Alternatives is an organization in Kentville, Nova Scotia that encourages community groups and volunteers to work with youth justice personnel in an effort to provide services for youth age 12-15 who are in conflict with the law.

There are 3 specific programs offered by this agency. The first is the Alternative Measures Program which is designed to work as an alternative to the formal court process. After referral to the organization by a member of the justice system, a youth meets with the victim of his/her crime to discuss the offence and surrounding issues.

The second program is entitled the Community Service Order Program. It focuses on recruiting community service placements for youth who are obliged to do community service work, either through the Alternative Measures Program or a Community Service Order.

The third program is called the Lifeskills Program which is targeted specifically to high-risk youth. It was developed due to a request through mediation sessions and case supervision of the two other programs this agency offers. The youth come together as a group and discuss issues which are relevant to this target group. These issues include peer pressure resistance, decision-making, communication, responsibility for one's actions, drugs, alcohol stress management and conflict management. The program is supervised by a Lifeskills Co-ordinator, and there is a maximum of 10 participants per session.

Youth in the program benefit by developing positive relationships and developing basic skills and concepts that will help them to develop stronger coping skills. The program also helps youth develop a clear understanding of responsible decision- making, and accepting responsibility for the actions associated with those decisions.

(SOURCE: Laurie Wanamaker. Co-ordinator. Valley Youth Alternatives Society)

*The local police department in Montreal North, PQ started a Judo program for youth who are in trouble with the law. They initiated a 13 week judo course for 8 youths with criminal violations such as theft, break and enters, etc. Youth were given a choice to either enter the program or face criminal charges for their action. The program had an 86% success rate for recidivism. This program is unique in that the police, the parents, and the community are all working together to help youth-at-risk stay out of trouble and jail. The program is funded by the City of Montreal North.

(SOURCE: Project P.A.S.S.A.G.E. Rapport Final de la Phase I. Police-Jeunsesse - District 45, Ville de Montreal-Nord, September, 1994)

*The EGADZ Downtown Youth Centre offers a variety of programs to the youth-at-risk of Saskatoon. There are three components to the agency: (1) Informal Program Services, (2) Formal Agency Program Services, and (3) Formal Special Projects Program Services. Five areas are focused on by the centre in its formal and informal planning. They are: (1) Education, (2) Employment and Work Readiness, (3) Recreation/Leisure/ Culture, (4) Health and Counselling, and (5) Food and Shelter.

The informal programming has four types of programs and is designed to assist youth in developing discipline, commitment, and physical and mental health. Examples of Structured programs, the first type, include: Girls/Boys Nigh Out, Native crafts, guest speakers, swimming, skiing, special meals, drama workshops, and dance lessons. These programs are designed with input by the youth. The second type is Community Outings which take place outside the Centre. Their purpose is to assist at-risk youth in behaving acceptably in public and show them alternatives to hanging out downtown. Some examples of programs include: monthly movies, swimming at an aquatic centre, and outings to various parks in the area which include seasonal activities (swimming, skating, toboganning). The third type of program is Spontaneous Activities which allow youth the freedom to choose which activities they wish to participate in. Some examples of these programs include: playing pool, cards, movie night, pre-treatment support, teen/ mom get-togethers, clothing depot, and topical circles. The fourth and final type is Special Events. The purpose of special events is to provide youth-at-risk with many experiences that other youth take for granted as a part of family life. It is also used to reward improvement in behaviours or attitude. Some examples include: Blade hockey games, Slam basketball games, and Lazer Fusion Arcade party.

Formal Program Services is an agreement between EGADZ Youth Centre and other agenciesto provide programs to the youth on or off-site. Agencies are encouraged to bring their program on-site, as the youth feel comfortable and safe at the youth centre. There are currently sixteen member agencies committed to delivering programs through the centre. Evaluation is completed at the end of each agency program. Following is a list of some of the programs offered through the centre during 1993:

*Public School Liaison - Monthly meetings between Public School Social Workers and EGADZ staff to discuss issues around youth attending the centre.

*Gym Time - Saskatoon Indian & Metis Friendship Centre and the YM-YWCA offer their facilities for youth to partake in activities such as volleyball, basketball and floor hockey.

*Cultural Activities - Native Culture and Recreation Program developed to create and provide cultural programming to youth. Activities include native crafts, native dancing, drum making, singing and a native feast.

Other programs the centre offers include: family counselling and support, sexual and physical abuse support, work related programs, recreation therapy, swimming, weight training, and medical walk-in clinic.

(SOURCE: Keith Honeyman. Recreation/Volunteer Co-ordinator. EGADZ Downtown Youth Centre)

*The Ranch Ehrlo Society in Pilot Butte, Saskatchewan emphasizes recreation as one of the four major components of its philosophy. Programming includes recreation, sport, social and cultural activities. The purpose of these programs is to develop teamwork, self-confidence, responsibility, sharing, and respect for others. As the majority of the clientele are native, the program focuses on native cultural preservation. Youth are encouraged to speak native languages, and cultural activities include native crafts, traditional native games, and archery. There is a strong belief that maintaining cultural heritage helps contribute to a youth's sense of identity.

(SOURCE: Brenda Butler. Facilitator of Special Programs. Ranch Ehrlo Society)

*The Edmonton, Alberta YMCA offers a variety of programs to youth who have been identified as high-risk based on social, personal and educational risk factors (ie. PINS to Chronic Deviants). These programs include: tutoring, leadership, homework sessions, organized sports, games, cooperative games, and fitness. There is also a series of workshops offered including such topics as relationships, career planning, and addictions.

(SOURCE: Sharon Cameron. Program Manager. Edmonton YMCA)

*The Leisure Services Department of Prince George, British Columbia has initiated four programs addressing youth-at-risk issues. The first program targeted at youth-at-risk is the Prince George Youth Recreation Organization (PYRO) Committee. This committee is made up of youth, representative of the Prince George area, who advise the Leisure Services Department on youth issues and what programs and services they feel they need. TheSummer Youth Centre is the second program, which provides a positive environment over the summer where youth can take part in leisure activities they had planned themselves. This program was free of charge and targeted youth from ages 12 to 18 years. Youth Day, the third program, involves a full day devoted to the youth of Prince George. The whole community participates by providing low cost or free activities for youth, such as swimming, skating, dances, and movies. The fourth initiative is a newsletter called Teens Today, which is designed to promote and direct activities and services to youth, as well as display positive images of youth. There is no specified age group for three of these programs because all programs are targeted toward all youth.

(SOURCE: Dave Barber-Cross. Recreation Youth Program Co-ordinator)

*In the City of Halifax, several municipal departments, the Halifax District School Board, Halifax Housing Authority, Halifax Regional Library, Halifax Police, Halifax Recreation Department, and Halifax Social Planning Department have agreed to cooperatively commence a strategic planning process to address the youth-at-risk issue. The strategic planning process is improving collaboration and coordination between these departments. The steps involved in this process include: establishing strategic planning process; clarifying mandates; clarifying the mission and values; assessing the external environment (ongoing opportunities and threats); assessing the internal environment (ongoing strengths and weaknesses); identifying the strategic issues; formulating strategies to manage the issues; and establishing an effective vision for the future.

(SOURCE: Allan Waye. Community Projects Co-ordinator. City of Halifax)

*The City of Halifax Recreation Department has initiated a recreation program directed at youth-at-risk through the Outdoor Recreation Centre involving a 21 day adventure experience. The "Youth L.I.V.E." program is divided into four phases with the first three phases taking place in the month of July. The participants are then required to make a year long commitment to work in the recreation centres to develop "Youth Helping Youth" programs. All four recreation centres within the City of Halifax are involved: Chocolate Lake, Needham, North Cliffe and George Dixon.

The first stage of the program is the outdoor adventure experience, which involves a seven day wilderness adventure experience for twenty-eight inner city youth. During the experience, the youth are asked to set individual and group goals, take on physical and emotional challenges, discuss their personal experiences, and use real world settings for solving problems. The main purpose of the program is to promote personal growth and development. To work towards this goal, the participants are asked to make an agreement called a "Full Value Contract", where the participant agrees to accept positive and constructive feedback, and work to the best of their ability towards the betterment of themselves, and towards the community as a whole. Adventure Based Counselling (ABC) takes the initiative to structure psychological experience. The ABC program uses the following core activities to promote growth and personal challenges on a physical, spiritual and emotional level: Ice Breakers, Trust and Communication Activities, Initiatives Tasksand Games, Campskills, Self Esteem Activities and Low Ropes Courses.

In the second stage, participants are involved in community service projects. Service projects are volunteer efforts intended to improve the lifestyle of others, such as trail maintenance, playground work, hospital work, visiting "shut-ins" or people with special needs, and story-telling to children. For this phase of the program, each participant is required to spend six days doing community service.

Stage three of the program is a continuation of the outdoor adventure experience, except the adventure medium is the city rather than the wilderness. This stage of the program ends with a 30 hour inner city solo, which will give the participant a chance to reflect upon their experience and prepare themselves for the "Youth Helping Youth" Program. The activities for stage three are Caving (inner city core), Rock Climbing, Individual 30 Hour Solo, 11 Hour Epic (community immersion), Cultural Immersion Day, and Program Closure.

In the fourth stage of the program, "Youth Helping Youth", seven youth from each section of the city become assistant youth workers at one of the four recreation centres. They participate as a peer counsellors and assist youth workers in developing programs that fit the needs of today's youth. The team of youth will be supported by adult mentors (volunteers) consisting of experienced professionals from various fields, such as community services, police departments, etc. The purpose of the program is for recreation staff, the youth partners, and the mentor volunteers to plan, and implement strategies for initiating and motivating other youth to participate in positive community activities.

"A Partnership For Youth" is a cooperative program between the Halifax Police Department and the Halifax City Recreation Department which provides the six summer students the opportunity to assist in the "Youth L.I.V.E." program under the Halifax Police Department. They work towards increasing access to services within the community as well as increasing positive images of youth.

(SOURCE: Allan Waye. Community Projects Co-ordinator. City of Halifax)

*Youth Connexions Jeunesse (YCJ) is the branch office of the Youth Council of New Brunswick, which opened on November 23, 1993. The centre is located in the Regent Mall Food Court in Fredericton. It has been made possible through cooperation and sponsorships of many groups, including grant money from the federal government's Stay in School initiative. The purpose of the YCJ is to provide information to youths ages 15-24 years about the local Access Centre, the labour market, resume writing, public education, stay-in school initiatives, universities, the N.B. Community College Network, and assistance in contacting government and non-government groups and agencies with services aimed towards youth. YCJ works in cooperation with Fundy Cable to produce a bi-weekly live television show entitled, "This Generation". This television show is produced and hosted by youth.

(SOURCE: Ivan Corbett. Manager. Youth Connexions Jeunesse)

*Leisure Services Department of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan has several physical activity/recreation programs for various ethnic and Native cultures. They have a native consultant and programmer who organizes activities for the native population. These activities include skating, a lifeguard program, learn-to-swim, native cultural program, and the MeTaWeTan Drop-In Youth Centre Program. The goal of the MeTaWeTan Youth Centres is to enhance and promote the Native culture by providing summer recreational programs for youth and children in the community. The primary objectives of the centres are to deliver a neighborhood and district based program for children and youth and to create a Native program for youths through recreation activities and cultural awareness. The Centres also offer programs that allow youth to participate without hinderance due to economic or geographical barriers, and hires native youth leaders, enabling them to be positive role models to the participants.

(SOURCE: Don Ratcliffe-Smith. Leadership Development Consultant. Leisure Service Department, City of Saskatoon)

*The YM-YWCA of Winnipeg has initiated two programs addressing the at-risk youth population. The first one is Night-Hoops, which runs from 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. Fridays and Saturdays. This program offers swimming, strength training, floor hockey and basketball. The majority of the participants are native. The second program is Teen Drop-In, which runs evenings and weekends during the winter, and afternoons during the summer. This program offers basketball, volleyball, strength training, swimming, and racquetball. Participants in this program come from various ethnic backgrounds. The YM-YWCA has indicated that fees for the programs have been kept low due to the clientele, and hence do not cover costs.

(SOURCE: Gayle Graham. General Manager, Downtown Branch. YM-YWCA of Winnipeg)

*St. Patricks School in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories is opening a full service community school facility in August, 1995. The school will take a holistic or wellness approach to youth and their needs. Housed within the walls of the school will be representatives from all youth-related agencies. In addition, there will be a child care service for students. The school will be open to the community for recreation programming before school hours, during noon hours, after school, evenings, weekends and holidays.

(SOURCE: Yellowknife Focus Group)

*The Community and Youth Corrections of Winnipeg, Manitoba has worked in conjunction with the Teen Adventure Group (T.A.G.) to provide adventure based activities and employment services to young offenders in custody, with Doug Reimer acting as the program co-ordinator. Three separate programs have been run, and each one has been deemed successful for engaging high at-risk youth, and involving them in both recreational and employment programs. Participants are approximately 70% Native due to the high percentage of Native youth in custody.

(SOURCE: Carolyn Brock. Assistant Director, Custody Support. Community and Youth Corrections, Department of Justice)

*The Manitoba Metis Foundation has several initiatives that address the issues of at-risk youth. They have established the Metis Sports and Recreation Council to address Metis sport and recreation issues, they are a member of Team Manitoba 1995 North American Indigenous Games Committee, they hired a Youth Development Coordinator to address youth issues, acquired funding to train 12 Metis youth in a recreation managers diploma program in January (1995), plan to hold a Metis youth conference in February (1995), and operate Youth Development Programs. Some of the activities in the Youth Development Programs are poster contests, jigging and square dancing lessons, exhibitions, Metis language classes, and weekly sport recreation nights.

(SOURCE: Raymond Larock. Youth Development Co-ordinator. Manitoba Metis Federation)

*ParticipACTION, in conjunction with Health Canada, has developed the "Vitality" campaign. ParticipAction prepared a video and television spots for the campaign addressed at encouraging youth ages 12-17 years to become more physically active. The campaign also includes a media kit, a Professionals and Educators kit, television and radio public service announcements, print ads, bus shelter advertising, Vitality brochures, and a calendar which was developed by Health Canada. The video and PSA's do not specifically address at-risk youth, but youth in general. Some of the PSA's have teens talking about the benefits of being regularly active in activities such as coaching basketball, recreational skating and team sports. One PSA in particular, focuses on a young boy, age 10, and an older teenager roller blading. The boy has had problems in the past and is being assisted by his "big sister". Other PSA's have shown young people from the First Nations school in Saskatchewan, and primarily black teenagers playing basketball with local police officers.

(SOURCES: Art Salmon. National Technical Director. ParticipAction; Program Promotion Division. Making a Difference II: 1991-1992. Health Canada)

*The Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport (CCDS) is a non-for-profit organization whose mission is to achieve drug-free sport in Canada. In order to fulfill their mandate, the CCDS promotes a comprehensive approach involving education, research, advocacy, detection, and deterrence. The CCDS has developed on behalf of the sport community, a national education campaign called "Spirit of Sport". The purpose of the campaign is to help foster and support values consistent with sporting excellence and the joy of drug-free sport. At major games and events, the CCDS conducts a "Mentoring Program", where accomplished athletes hold small group discussions with younger, aspiring athletes on the positive aspects of sport. These programs are aimed at all youth involved in sport in order to prevent the use of drugs in sport. The success of these programs was not indicated and at-risk youth for CCDS are assumed to be youth that take drugs in order to increase their sport performance.

(SOURCE: Leslie Greenberg. Co-ordinator, Special Projects. Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport)

*Health Canada has initiated a number of campaigns to heighten the awareness of drug, alcohol, and smoke related problems. The "Really Me" campaign uses a variety of socialmarketing approaches to reach youth ages 11-17. Television advertisements have been aired in selected months since 1987, with the latest two being aired in the fall of 1993. Radio, interior and exterior bus and transit shelter posters, magazine advertisements, targeted publications and special promotion and information activities have all helped to sensitize Canadians to the dangers of alcohol and other drug use. In 1992, efforts to discourage driving while impaired, which were formally carried out as part of the National Program on Impaired Driving using the campaign theme of "Play It Smart", were integrated into the "Really Me" campaign. Campaign activities involve extensive collaboration with private sector companies. A partnership with Hilroy, the largest supplier of school supplies in Canada, has continued since 1987. Today, partners such as the Toronto Blue Jays and Youth Television (YTV) are also actively supporting the "Really Me" campaign. This campaign has been successful in increasing the awareness of drug and alcohol related problems. "Break Free", a campaign to inform Canadian youth 12-17 years of the benefits of not smoking uses the same media avenues as "Really Me". The Directorate has developed private-sector partnerships with several private firms, including Toshiba of Canada and Peugot. Again, an increase in awareness was reported when the campaign was operating.

(SOURCE: Program Promotion Division. Making a Difference II: 1991-1992. Health Canada)

5.4 FACTORS RELATED TO PROGRAM SUCCESS

Although a great deal of evaluation was not indicated, respondents did specify a number of factors related to why they thought their program was a success. These were:

*The program should be community-based with agencies working together to meet all the needs of youth-at-risk. Recreation should be incorporated as an important component of that strategy.

*Communities who pool their resources and jointly fund programs meet with a great deal of success.

*Communities need to designate who is going to coordinate youth-related activities. This prevents duplication of services and gaps in programming.

*Successful programs mix prosocial youth with antisocial youth.

*On-going evaluation is an important component of a successful program.

*Programs should be holistic and not just physically based.

*The most successful programs take preventative measures and stop the behaviour before it begins.

*The success of intervention programs lie in the fact that they offer alternatives to the at-risk behaviour (ie., drugs and smoking).

*Programmers must go to where the youth are and not expect them to come to the recreation department. Outreach programs operated in malls are achieving success based on this philosophy.

*Programs must offer a positive, non-threatening environment.

*Cross-cultural awareness training has lead to the success of recreation centres in multicultural communities.

5.5 FACTORS RELATED TO PROGRAM FAILURE

Very few respondents cited factors related to program failure, due mainly to the fact that only successful programs were reported. Most concentrated on the factors of success or did not comment at all on the success or failure of the program. The factors that were reported included: a lack of funding which resulted in an increase in cost to the participants; and, not soliciting youth input prior to programming.6. LIMITATIONS OF PROJECT

There are in this study, as in all research studies, a number of limitations that must be considered when examining the results.

The issues that face Canadian youth, and particularly those considered at-risk, are part of a larger social issue. Canadian youth and their families are facing many changes in the social, emotional, spiritual, economic, political, industrial, and technological aspects of daily life. These pressures have manifested many interrelated problems: family violence and breakup, drug and alcohol abuse, poverty, racism, youth unemployment, teen suicide, and have placed many Canadian youth at-risk. Given the strong interdependency of these social problems, it is difficult to examine one in isolation of the others. It is equally difficult to initiate action to intervene in one specific issue. It is for this reason that the issue of youth-at-risk must always be viewed, and approached in a holistic fashion. Therefore, any attempt to study the youth-at-risk, and the role that one specific issue (physical activity and recreation) plays in isolation, as was done in this study, may lead to an oversimplification of the issue and possible solutions.

Although the review of the empirical and nonempirical literature is extensive, it is by no means exhaustive. Given the limited time for the study, four and a half mouths, the literature represents a capsule overview of the relevant literature. In addition, the literature represents an overview of research and programs from both Canada and the United States of America. The research and literature from each of these countries complements the other and adds to our knowledge about the research area and possible solutions.

While this report may look extensive, it is by no means. The limited resources, time and the level of funding, only allowed the study to catch a glimpse of the total picture that face today's youth in Canada. It was very apparent at the start of the study that this study was a huge undertaking with an impossible task. To try to identify the impacts and benefits of physical activity and recreation on Canadian youth-at-risk, and to catalogue and analyze the current program initiatives across the country, and to conduct and analyze the results of 64 focus groups, all in four and a half months --- this in itself is a limitation. However, even with those limited resources, the report does in fact capture a fairly clear image of the problems that youth face, and the role that physical activity and recreation can play in their development. There is a lot more out there that should be examined and shared, this is only a beginning.

The government initiatives and model programs section for the report is intended to provide an overview of what the various governments across Canada have recently initiated. While this section does provide an idea of government and private sector action, it is hardly extensive. The limited time and the mail survey method did not allow for sufficient time to conduct an exhaustive search. The results are still arriving.

One significant limitation that was inherent in the study was the research methodology used. The use of a series of provincial/territorial "hosts" and local contacts to arrange the logistics and participants for the local focus groups presented some difficulties. Often the guidelines for focus group participants did not reach the local facilitator until a few days before the scheduled date of the focus group. As a result, some of the focus groups were not well attended, and the participants did not match the recommended profile. It would appear that the multiple links in the communications resulted in inaccurate and incomplete information arriving with little time.

Because of the long distance arrangements, and/or working through two or three intermediaries, the composition of various focus groups was not as planned. Given the opportunity of local facilitators to invite participants to the focus groups, there may have been some unintentional facilitator bias in the selection of participants that may have skewed the results. In addition, the focus groups participants did not constitute a representative sample so the results should be carefully considered and cannot be generalized to the whole population.

Although the sites of the native, and urban and rural focus groups were randomly assigned across the country, the exact location and the participants were not randomly selected. For this reason, and because the number of participants was relatively small, the results of those particular focus groups cannot be considered representative opinions of all native, urban and rural communities.

The limited resources and the non-random selection of the focus group participants did not allow any form of in-depth study and analysis of the gender and multicultural issues facing youth-at-risk and the role that physical activity and recreation plays in these areas.

Another limitation that may have influenced the results was the individuals who participated in the parent focus groups. As reported earlier, apparently those who attended the parent sessions did not truly represent the parents of at-risk youth, at least not based on the review of the literature. The parents that did participate appeared to be very interested and committed to their children, and to physical activity and recreation. The inability of the researchers to randomly select, and to control who attended these parent sessions may have resulted in a bias convenience sample. Only interested and committed parents would show-up. This may also be true of all the focus group participants.

The last limitation is one that is true of most research, the research effect. The very nature of the project and the presence of the research team may have evoked politically correct, or socially desirable responses. Participants in the focus groups may have concentrated more on the positive (ie. quality program initiatives) as opposed to being frank with regard to the negative (ie. failed program initiatives). They may also have been inhibited when sharing information on sensitive issues.

In spite of the above limitations the report does provide an excellent overview of the impacts and benefits of physical activity and recreation on Canadian youth-at-risk.7. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

7.1 URBAN VS RURAL

The overriding conclusion when comparing the issues facing urban youth-at-risk and their communities with those faced by their rural counterparts is the similarity in the youth-at-risk and their physical activity and recreation. They both face the same challenges, confront the same social rules and regulations, and share an uncertain future. It was very apparent that youth-at-risk is not just an urban issue. The youth of rural Canada appear to be equally at-risk. There appeared to be little difference in the availability, acceptance, and use of drugs and alcohol, the level of sexual activity was just as great, and there did not seemed to be any variation in deviant and/or criminal behaviour. Both rural and urban communities also shared the unfortunate problem of racial and ethnic discrimination by their youth in physical and recreational services.

There were, however, some differences that should be noted:

Availability of Physical Activity/Recreation Facilities and Services: It appears that rural youth do not have the same level of service availability, variety, and perhaps quality as urban youth. For obvious reasons the facilities and services just are not there, yet the youth are interested in the same services and facilities that are available in larger urban centres. In many rural communities, the youth, their friends, and family tended to rely more on the natural environment for their physical activity and recreation (ie. bush parties). When physical and recreation services were available, the rural youth shared the same concern as their urban cousins, the appropriateness of the services. Both groups strongly complained about the variety, traditional/adult nature, costs, and accessibility of the available services.

Transportation: Both rural and urban youth and their families shared a concern over the ability of youth to physically access available services. For rural youth, the primary issue was the availability of transportation. If transportation was available, rural youth and their families shared the problems of cost and inconvenient scheduling - similar to problems faced by urban youth. The transportation schedule did not often match activity timetables.

Community Responsibility: If rural youth-at-risk have an advantage over at-risk youth in urban environments, it is the apparent level of community caring that appeared to be evident in the rural communities. Rural communities described a greater awareness of who the youth-at-risk were, knew of their problems, knew and assisted the families to a greater degree, and appeared to accept a share of the responsibility for the problem and the solutions than did urban communities. Urban communities and families tended to be just as aware of the problem in general, but were not aware of specific youth and their challenges. The willingness to accept some of the responsibility of the causes and solutions was not as evident in urban communities.

7.2 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT STAGES ON YOUTH-AT-RISK CONTINUUM

The focus group stratification allowed for a comparison to be made between youth who represented each of the top three stages on the youth-at-risk continuum (Figure 1). However, because of the subtle and sometimes ambiguous differences in characteristics between the youth generalized on one stage of the youth-at-risk continuum and the general description of youth at the next stage, obtaining participants for the focus groups who accurately fit into the recommended stage proved to be logistically difficult. In addition, the literature often focus's on youth at the final stage on the continuum (chronic deviants) because of the experimental advantages surrounding this group. These include: the characteristic of incarceration is objective and easy to identify, the youth of interest have already been labelled, and the population is a manageable and relatively homogenous group. As a result, an analysis or comparison of the issues facing youth at various stages on the continuum cannot be effectively addressed within the constraints of this report. It is believed by the research group that significant differences do exist between youth at various stages on the youth-at-risk continuum, as is somewhat evident in the literature, and that the physical activity/recreation issues and subsequent recommendations for each stage of youth should be specific to the youth.

The most significant difference at the various stages of the continuum center around programming, leadership experience, and the amount and type of interaction that transpires between youth and leader. The literature indicates that as youth move down the continuum, programs need to be more adventurous, non-competitive, and informal. A more therapeutic recreation emphasis must also be incorporated (McKay, 1994). The training needed by leaders who work with youth is also dictated by the stage of the continuum. The further along the continuum that a youth is, the more experience and training that is required by the leaders to be effective in their endeavours (Fellman et al., 1983). Finally, the type and amount of interaction between the leader and the youth is influenced by placement on the continuum. Higher-risk youth need more one-on-one attention with highly supportive leaders (Smith & Smoll, 1990).

More research is needed to delineate the specific impact of physical activity/recreation on youth at various stages on the youth-at-risk continuum.

7.3 GENDER RELATED ISSUES

Most of the research regarding youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation concentrates on male subjects, or an equal combination of male and female youth. A review of the literature revealed two areas where research specifically addresses female participants: depression and sports.

Malkin et al. (1989) found that recreation participation increased the sense of freedom, confidence, self-esteem, accomplishment, and interpersonal problem-solving of depressed female patients. Physical activity/recreation also had a positive effect on womens' perception of power and evaluation of being female (Malkin, 1991). In the area of sports, the Institute for Athletics andEducation (1993) found that girls who are active in sports are 92% less likely to use drugs and 80% less likely to have an unwanted pregnancy.

The focus group sessions mentioned four main issues in regard to gender. It should be noted that in many cases, culture tends to increase constraints to female participation (Carrington et al., 1987). The main issues were:

*Gender Bias in Programs: Many programs are male oriented which results in decreased participation of females. In addition, due to social stereotyping of roles, females who do want to participate in "male" activities, are often prevented or discouraged from taking part. There is also a gender bias in the availability and accessibility of school and community programs (ie. time and transportation).

*Gender Bias in Leadership: Gender discrimination goes beyond programs and facilities, it also includes leadership. There is a lack of female leadership opportunities and role models.

*Gender Bias in Parenting: Parents seem more protective of their daughters when compared to their sons. This often leads to restrictions in participation being placed on the female (ie. time of day the program is offered - females cannot stay out late at night). In many homes, daughters have less discretionary time due to family responsibilities such as housework and babysitting siblings.

*Gender Bias in Issues: Participants in the focus groups noted that females faced at least the same risk in society as their male counterparts. Some parents argued that females faced increased or different issues than males. Examples were: health issues, abuse, pregnancy, and safety.

A number of programs specifically designed to meet the needs of female youth were received through the current initiatives mail-out. These programs were usually fitness oriented and concentrated on body image and self-esteem.

7.4 ABORIGINAL ISSUES

Little empirical evidence was found in regard to the impact of physical activity/recreation specifically on Native youth-at-risk. Research that has been conducted has centered around physical activity/recreation's impact on crime, substance abuse and depression. The Northern Fly-In Sports Camp program, operated in remote northern Manitoba communities, has helped to deter costly, negative social behaviour. Research results examining the impact of the program has shown that there was a 17% reduction in crime in communities participating in the program as opposed to a more than 10% increase in communities without the program during the summer months (Winther & Currie, 1987). More recent studies also show a reduction in the amount of substance abuse in the host communities. (Winther & Currie, 1993). Recreation (including physical activity) can also be a way out of the monotonous and often destructive life of non-work and non-school that is thesituation facing so many Native youth (Government of Canada, 1994). It can be an effective context in which to develop physical, social, and emotional skills, and confidence. Both Native leaders and members of the professional community of educators and criminologists have expressed the belief that the lack of recreational activity in most Native communities is linked to complaints of boredom, episodes of drug and alcohol experimentation, and other forms of self-destructive behaviour such as suicide (Government of Canada, 1994).

The focus group section revealed that many of the issues facing all Canadian youth-at-risk in regard to physical activity/recreation are also those being experienced by Native youth, their families, and communities. Specific issues of concern centered around discrimination, availability of leadership, poor parenting, lack of resources (human and financial), isolation, cultural identity, commitment to youth, and partnership development.

The response on the initiatives mail-out seemed to indicate that overall, the western part of Canada has a considerable number of physical activity/recreation programs targeted at Native youth. Many of these initiatives attempt to incorporated native games and cultural activities as a means of preserving and enhancing the cultural identity of Native youth. For example, the Ranch Ehrlo Society in Pilot Butte, Saskatchewan encourages youth to speak their native languages, and offers cultural activities such as native crafts, traditional native games, and archery.

A number of the initiatives received that addressed Native youth were included in the model programs section of Chapter 5. Not only did these initiatives involve culturally specific activities, they also represented programs that take a holistic approach to youth, hire Native leaders to act as role models, educate the Native community on the benefits of physical activity/recreation, have on-going evaluations, and make attempts to remove economic and geographic barriers to participation. Addressing these issues were expressed in the focus groups as elements of a successful program.

More research is needed to establish the impact of physical activity/recreation on Native youth. The Native specific issues identified in the focus groups, even though they may not represent the entire Native population of Canada, give researchers a starting point. A review of the current initiatives that were received highlight a number of ideal programs that could be utilized for this type of research.

7.5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The major findings of each section are summarized at the end of each chapter and are not repeated here. Nevertheless, specific issues related to geographical location, various stages on the youth-at-risk continuum, gender issues, and aboriginal concerns were briefly analyzed in this section.

For the most part, there were no significant differences between the issues facing urban youth compared to rural youth. Some issues that were raised in this regard suggested that rural youth have less facilities and services available, more transportation problems, and a community more willing to accept responsibility for the problems of youth.

The most significant differences in issues related to youth at the various stages of the youth-at-risk continuum center around programming, leadership experience, and youth-leader interaction. Logistical constraints associated with the focus groups limited any conclusions from being made from that research method. More research is needed to address the specific needs of youth with varying degrees of behavioural problems.

Encouraging research on the potential impact of physical activity/recreation on female youth exists. In general, females appear to derive similar benefits to males. Four main gender bias issues did emerge from the focus groups. These issues related to programming, leadership, parenting, and risk.

There is little empirical research related to aboriginal youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation. Basically, the issues facing aboriginal youth are the same as those facing all youth. Notable exceptions are discrimination and cultural issues. The majority of current initiatives gathered during this research were from western Canada.8. RECOMMENDATIONS

This section is organized into nine subsections based on the general thrust of the study. The subsections include: youth issues, community development, leadership development, information networking/communication, collaborative policy development, specific programming, evaluation measures, native issues and future research.

A.Youth Issues:

It is recommended that:

1.Strategies and related programs be developed that actively integrate all youth, and particularly youth-at-risk, into the decision making process for the delivery of all youth oriented services, but especially physical activity/recreation. Youth must be empowered in all facets of physical activity/recreation programming and service development. Appropriate communication strategies must be instituted in homes, schools, and physical activity/recreation organizations.

2.Employment and leadership development strategies be developed that facilitate increased opportunities for youth leadership of youth. Community and group specific leaders must be actively cultivated in order to provide relevant and acceptable physical activity/recreation leadership to youth-at-risk.

3.A program of Youth-Adult Interchange be developed. Adults and youth must learn to be aware or understand, and accept their relative similarities and differences before solutions can be developed and implemented. Adults attitudes and trust concerning youth, and vice versa, must change in order to resolve youth challenges. In particular, community decision-makers, political, and other leaders must become familiar with youth, their issues, needs, and possible solutions.

4.Financial support programs be developed that facilitate the direct involvement of youth and their families in physical activity/recreation services. This must be developed in collaboration with other local service organizations. Financial barriers to participation must be lowered.

B.Community Development:

It is recommended that:

1.Federal/Provincial/Municipal organizations develop a Family Development and Unity Strategy. Such a strategy should focus on parental values and attitudes to increase their knowledge and appreciation of the challenges of today's youth, and the role that physical activity and recreation can play in resolving those challenges.

2.A Community Senior-Youth Integration Strategy be developed whose purpose is to foster the integration of a community's seniors, with its youth, and at-risk youth.

3.An integrated interorganization Community Development/Healing Strategy bedeveloped that is primarily focused on youth-at-risk and the partnership role of physical activity/recreation organizations. The goal of the strategy would be to develop a self-help process within communities.

4.Municipalities develop a "Healthy Community Strategy". This strategy should address youth issues, community safety, and the wellness of its citizens. The community must demonstrate that youth are a priority.

C.Leadership Development:

It is recommended that:

1.A specific youth-at-risk leadership training program in physical activity and recreation be developed as part of the Employment and Leadership Development Strategy. Leaders need to be well trained and properly educated. The direct leadership for physical activity and recreation services is a key component of success. To be accepted by youth, and to be successful, the leader must have a good understanding and appreciation of youth and their issues. Leaders should also be specifically trained in youth issues, behaviour modifications, community development, and in physical activity and recreation. Leaders should also come from the same community (geographic, social, racial) that they serve. Existing national training programs such as the National Coaching Certification Program (NCCP) and the Skills Program for Management Volunteers should incorporate specific youth-at-risk issues and approaches.

2.In coordination with other community organizations, physical activity/recreation agencies develop community mentorship programs that create opportunities for youth to explore appropriate social behaviours and improved futures.

3.Youth service organizations work in a coordinated fashion with community volunteer bureaus in order to provide training for volunteers and parents, and to provide leadership opportunities for youth, including youth-at-risk.

D.Information Networking/Communication:

It is recommended that:

1.An information centre with one central number for all youth related services in each community be created to coordinate, orchestrate, and integrate existing programs.

2.Youth organized conferences for youth be supported to identify issues related to youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation. Similar conferences with related partners delivering youth services are needed for information sharing, solution identification, and for research purposes. Such conferences should be an annual community event.

3.A public education strategy be developed to increase the awareness of, interest in, and commitment to, youth issues and the role that physical activity and recreation plays in those issues. The strategy should focus on increasing the awareness of the public, and public decision makers of youth issues and possible solutions. One of the objectives of such a program should be to move the youth-at-risk issue and the role ofphysical activity/recreation up on the political agenda of federal, provincial/territorial, and local political leaders.

E.Collaborative Policy Development:

It is recommended that:

1.A community-based interorganizational collaborative strategy for Youth-at-risk be developed. The strategy should specify the role of various services including physical activity and recreation, which must be an active partner in the development and implementation of the strategy. Federal, provincial/territorial, and local strategies must be developed within a coordinated framework. The goals of the strategy would be to create an increased awareness and appreciation of the benefits and roles that physical activity and recreation plays with youth-at-risk, facilitate a broad range of program/service opportunities for youth-at-risk and their families, initiate strategic alliances, and identify necessary resources, youth-at risk needs and participation constraints. The strategy must also outline program evaluation and research needs.

2.An interorganization committee should be established in each community to facilitate the initiation of local youth-at-risk strategies and to facilitate the coordination of services related to youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation services.

3.In collaboration with other departments that focus on youth and physical ac tivity/recreation, other youth organizations, youth-at-risk themselves, and provincial departments responsible for education, re-examine their physical education, music and art curricula, as well as extracurricular activities and the involvement of youth-at-risk in those activities. Initiatives and policies must be developed to include, not exclude, these youth.

4.Health Canada provide financial support for communities for the formation of physical activity/recreation strategies for youth-at-risk. Funding should be available for pilot projects, facility development, program development and initiation, and for research.

5.Provincial/territorial and Federal Ministries responsible for physical activity and recreation be an active partner with departments/agencies responsible for crime prevention in the development of preventative strategies. The critical role that physical activity and recreation plays in prevention must be recognized and incorporated.

6.Municipal organizations responsible for the provision of local recreation services re-examine their mission, policies, and procedures to facilitate the offering of recreation services for youth-at-risk. These organizations must be seen as, and be, more than just agencies that deliver activities to occupy the community's free time and to operate its recreation facilities. Local recreation organizations must become an active partner, if not leader, in community development, community health, and in its renewal. New community development approaches must be established as well as new partnerships and new personnel resources and practices.

7.Federal and Provincial governments must initiate coordinated amendments to current legislation governing civil action for liability claims. Legislation such as Provincial andFederal Corporations/Companies/Volunteer Organizations acts must be changed to facilitate working with youth-at-risk, and the offering of high-risk recreation services.

8.As a part of the interorganizational collaborative strategy for youth-at-risk, the department responsible for physical activity/recreation in each community, in collaboration with other youth and physical activity/recreation agencies, identify the types of programs best suited to the needs of youth and youth-at-risk in the community, identify and evaluate existing youth programs and services, identify and evaluate programs and services offered by other youth-serving organizations, and identify resources that can be allocated to achieve the strategy.

9.Community departments responsible for physical activity/recreation take a lead role in the establishment of a round table discussion on youth, and youth-at-risk issues. The purpose of the discussion would be to form partnerships on youth issues in the community. This discussion should include representatives from education, police, health, youth agencies, governments, parents, youth, and local/provincial political leaders.

10.Where they do not exist, Provincial/Territorial governments establish a Secretariat of Youth Departments. Specific responsibilities of the Secretariat would include support for: the development and implementation of provincial/territorial youth-at-risk strategies; the development and implementation of pilot projects to test integrated approaches to service delivery; local and regional Youth Committees in strategic planning, community development; government policy coordination and policy identification; program and service coordination issues and problems. The action plan should include building agreements within government on the well-being of youth and developing a common approach among the appropriate departmental partners (see Appendix E for some suggestions). Subsequently, public involvement in the action planning process should include all related partners. Finally, a collective agreement and commitment to the action plan is required.

11.Through the leadership of Health Canada, the federal government of Canada initiate and facilitate the development of a National Youth Development Strategy. Youth-at-risk must be a priority of such a strategy. In addition, the strategy should identify the creation of a National Youth Secretariat as a priority. Each federal department and agency having a primary, secondary, or tertiary youth mandate should be represented within the Secretariat. This National Youth Secretariat would be responsible for implementing the National Youth Development Strategy.

F.Specific Programming:

It is recommended that:

1.Physical activity/recreation prevention efforts begin early; as soon as children start school.

2.Communities establish a network of youth drop-in centres. Youth must be consulted in the development of these facilities, and should be intensively involved in the operation of these facilities.

3.Specific programming for each youth subgroup (preps, dirts, skaters, jocks, etc.) is needed to entice participation while acknowledging subcultures. The specific youth groups need to be consulted and empowered during the program planning process.

4.Activity sampling be provided to let youth know what is available, and to let them decide what they want to do. Flexible programming is required to meet the needs of youth-at-risk.

5.Better use of existing school facilities be considered. Local and neighbourhood schools should be turned into community centres for youth. These centres have to be open in the evening, on weekends, and during the summer months.

6.Youth specific facilities, such as skateboard parks, need to be developed in communities and based on youth interest and design.

7.Leaders in physical activity/recreation for youth-at-risk, and all youth, be trained in the holistic approach to program delivery. A holistic approach should be taken for program/service development.

8.A change from competition-based programming to participation-based programming is needed to entice less skilled youth to participate. Agencies must go beyond traditional programming if youth-at-risk are to be involved.

9.More activities to be devoted to children who are not interested in competitive sports. Activities have to be more challenging and interesting for youth. Youth must be consulted in the type of activities they want and should be given more responsibility. More attention has to be devoted to cultural activities and the diverse needs of a multi-cultural community.

10.Physical activity and recreation leaders be aware of the ethnic make-up of the community to ensure that communications take place in appropriate languages and that ethnic youth and families have ethnic specific physical activity and recreation services as an option. They also need to hire or recruit volunteers with different ethnic backgrounds.

11.Agencies responsible for physical activity and recreation develop equal opportunity policies and strategies for their services and staff. More "female only" activities need to be offered to encourage female youth to participate, and to provide more equitable gender recreational opportunities in the community. Discrimination against females participating in "male" activities needs to be addressed.

12.Communities, through schools and recreation departments, need to educate youth-at-risk on how to use leisure time positively.

13.Interactive arcade-like youth information booths be put in malls. Analogous to the electronic job board computers that are currently in shopping malls, the information available through this medium needs to be expanded to include a variety of youth services that can be accessed confidentially. This databank must be continually updated and should include information related to physical activity and recreation programs andopportunities.

14.More cultural events/festivals be offered where members of the community could interact and share their different cultures.

G.Evaluation Measures:

It is recommended that:

1.Programs need to be properly, and regularly, evaluated and modifications made accordingly. Evaluation must go beyond the mere counting of participants, and include attempts to establish the impact of physical activity/recreation on youth-related issues.

H.Native Issues:

It is recommended that:

1.Special assistance be provided to native communities to develop a Youth/Youth-at-Risk in Physical Activity and Recreation Development Strategy. The development of the strategy, and its implementation must involve native youth, native leaders, and various native community service organizations such as the First Nations Organization, Native Women, and native social services. This collaboration should be encouraged to involve other agencies such as the church, Departments of Justice, Social Services, Native Affairs, etc., in the development process.

2.The Strategy explore methods to develop specific physical activity and recreation services for native youth/youth-at-risk and their families. Cultural activities, and cultural specific programs should be available to native youth. More activities have to be devoted toward native children Activities have to be challenging and interesting for youth. Native youth must be consulted in the type of activities they want and should be given more responsibility.

3.Programs to develop native physical activity and recreation leaders be included in the Youth/Youth-at-Risk in Physical Activity and Recreation Development Strategy. Native youth who are at-risk should be actively recruited into the leadership program.

4.Full-time native recreation leadership be initiated in urban native communities and on native reserves. The native recreation leader would be responsible for organizing leadership courses for volunteers, obtaining information on what is available in other communities and through government, and initiate new programs in the community.

5.Better use of existing school facilities is needed. The school should become a community centre for all native children and for the native community.

6.Native specific family development and unity programs be developed. Various social and health service agencies need to address native community issues using a holistic approach. Partnerships with the schools, church, recreation, police and especially native organizations need to be formed.

7.A specific Healthy Native Community Strategy be developed and implemented. The Federal and Provincial governments, along with native leaders, need to discuss the issues of community development for natives. The concept of a healthy community model must be approached with the whole community involved, including a strategy for recreation services.

8.A Community Tolerance Program be developed for integrated communities. Linkages are needed with the white community to explain the native culture. Together, a way has to be found to eliminate discrimination of natives in all aspects of the community and particularly in physical activity and recreation services.

I.Future Research:

It is recommended that:

1.Benchmark research be developed to identify the youth issues that can best be best addressed by physical activity/recreation strategies, and to verify the effectiveness of the programs. Pilot projects, like Active Living's model cities, need to be established to test the impact of specific physical activity and recreation initiatives in selected communities. Appropriate variables must be followed longitudinally to evaluate the program. Health Canada's leadership in this initial step is critical to the further advancement of the youth-at-risk issue.

2.More research is required to improve understanding about the psychological make-up of youth-at-risk, and particularly how physical activity/recreation can assist them.

3.More research is required to establish the behavioural impact of television/video games, and gang involvement.

4.More research is necessary to establish if a relationship exists between physical activity and other health related lifestyle behaviours (substance abuse, preventive health check-ups, smoking, nutritional behaviours, stress levels, sleeping patterns, etc.).

5.An increased emphasis be placed on improving the understanding of the physiological mechanisms responsible for some of the advantageous behavioural changes that occur in response to physical activity.

6.More research is needed to understand the specific recreational needs of youth at different stages on the youth-at-risk continuum.

7.Further research is needed to assess the impact of physical activity/recreation on various cultures, especially Native Canadians.9. REFERENCES

Agnew, R. (1991). The interactive effects of peer variables on delinquency. Criminology, 29 (1), 47-72.

Alpert, B.S. & Wilmore, J.H. (1994). Physical activity and blood pressure in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 361-380.

Armstrong, S. (1987). Teen Suicide. Canadian Living, March, 39.

Armstrong, N. & Simons-Morton, B. (1994). Physical activity and blood lipids in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 381-405.

Backman, S.J. & Crompton, J.L. (1984/85). Do outdoor education experiences contribute to cognitive development? The Journal of Environmental Education, 16 (2), 4-13.

Bahrke, M.S., Yesalis, C.E. & Wright, J.E. (1990). Psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone levels and anabolic-androgenic steroids among males: A review. Sports Medicine, 10 (5), 303-337.

Bailey, D.A. & Martin, A.D. (1994). Physical activity and skeletal health in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 330-347.

Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 359-373.

Bar-Or, O. & Baranowski. (1994). Physical activity, adiposity, and obesity among adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 348-360.

Barton, W.J. & Butts, J.A. (1990). Viable options: intensive supervision programs for juvenile delinquents. Crime and Delinquency, 36 (2), 238-256.

Beneteau, R. (1988). Trends in suicide. Canadian Social Trends (Statistics Canada), Winter, 22-24.

Bergin, D.A. (1992). Leisure activity, motivation, and academic achievement in high school students. Journal of Leisure Research, 24 (3), 225-239.

Berman, A. & Siegal, A.W. (1976). Adaptive and learning skills in juvenile delinquents: a neuropsychological analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 583-590.

Blanchard, B.E. (1946). A comparative analysis of secondary-school boys' and girls' character and personality traits in physical education classes. Research Quarterly, 17 (1), 33-39.

Bouchard, C., Shephard, R.J. & Stephens, T., eds. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health: International Proceedings and Consensus Statement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Bouchard, C. Shephard, R.J. & Stephens, T. (1993). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health: Consensus Statement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. Publishers.

Brannigan, A. & Caputo, T. (1993, May). Studying Runaways and Street Youth in Canada (pp.14-17). Ottawa, ON: Solicitor General Canada.

Brown, W.K., Jenkins, R.L. & Rhodes, W. A. (1992). Delinquent peer culture and adult criminality: A longitudinal study. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 17 (3/4), 161-170.

Bruess, C.E. & Richardson, G.E. (1994). Healthy Decisions. Madison, WN: Brown and Benchmark.

Bulletin, Edmonton, July 19, 1944.

Burch, W.R. (1986). Ties that bind -- the social benefits of recreation provision (pp.81-91). A Literature Review: The President's Commission on American Outdoors. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Caldwell, L.L. (1993). Research on adolescents and leisure activities. Parks and Recreation, 28 (3), 19-25, 161.

Calfas, K.J. & Taylor, W. (1994). Effects of physical activity on psychological variables in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 406-423.

Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute (1994). The research file: physical activity promotes self-esteem. CAHPERD Journal, (Winter), 45.

Canadian Centre for Drug-free Sport (1993). National School Survey on Drugs and Sport. Ottawa, ON: CCDS.

Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (1992). More than Sport Campaign (Sport Yukon). Whitehorse, YK: Yukon Community and Transportation Services.

Caputo, T. & Ryan, C. (1991, September). The Police Response to Youth at Risk (pp.3-5). Ottawa, ON: Solicitor General Canada.

Carrington, B., Chivers, T. & Williams, T. (1987). Gender, leisure and sport: A case-study of young people of South Asian descent. Leisure Studies, 6, 265-279.

Castellano, T.C. & Soderstrom, I.R. (1992). Therapeutic wilderness programs and juvenile recidivism: A program evaluation. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 17, 19-46.

Cernkovich, S.A. & Giordano, P.C. (1987). Family relationships and delinquency. Criminology, 25 (2), 295-321.

Chenery, M.F. (1981). Effects of summer camp on child development and contributions of counselors to those effects. Journal of Leisure Research, 13 (3), 195-207.

Children and Youth Program Review Initiatives Committee (1992, February). Children, Youth, & Their Communities: A New Approach (pp. 2-4,15,34). Report to the Prince Edward Island Cabinet Committee on Government Reform. Charlottetown, PEI.

Children and Youth Secretariat (1994). Manitoba Government News Release, October 17.

Coakley, J. (1993). Sport and socialization. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 21, 169-200.

Cossette Communication-Marketing (1987). Les attitudes et les besoins des jeunes face à leurs loisirs. Québec, PQ: Ministère du Loisir, de la Chasse et de la Pêche.

Cowell, C. (1960). The contributions of physical activity to social development. The Research Quarterly, 31 (2), 286-306.

Crompton, J.L., & Sellar, C. (1981). Do outdoor education experiences contribute to positive development in the affective domain. The Journal of Environmental Education, 12 (4), 21-29.

Department of Justice (1993). Creating Safer Communities: Violent and Repeat Offending by Young People (draft). Ottawa, ON: Department of Justice of Canada.

Dishion, T.J., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M. & Patterson, G.R. (1984). Skill deficits and male adolescent delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12 (1), 37-54.

Dishman, R.K. (1990). Exercise, Fitness and Health (pp.75-101). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Dishman, R.K. & Sallis, J.F. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health (pp.214-238). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Edmonton City Council (1944). City Council Minutes, July 10, 1944.

Eliany, M. (1991). Alcohol and Drug Use. Canadian Social Trends (Statistics Canada), Spring, 19-26.

Eliany, M. & Courtemanche, J. (1992). Smoking Behaviour of Canadians: A National Alcohol and Other Drugs Survey Report. Ottawa, ON: Health and Welfare Canada.

Ellis, G.D., Maughan-Pritchett, M. & Ruddell, E. (1993). Effects of attribution based verbal persuasion and imagery on self-efficacy of adolescents diagnosed with major depression. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 27 (2), 83-97.

Ellis, D. (1984). Video arcades, youth, and trouble. Youth & Society, 16 (1), 47-65.

Ellis, G.D. & Rademacher, C. (1987). Development of a typology of common adolescent free time activities: A validation and extension of Kleiber, Larson and Csikszentmihalyi. Journal of Leisure Research, 19 (4), 284-292.

Executive Council Office (1989, December). Youth on Prince Edward Island: An Investment in Our Future (pp.3,21,38). Charlottetown, PEI.

Fagan, J. & Wexler, S. (1987). Family origins of violent delinquents. Criminology, 25 (3), 643-669.

Feldman, R.A., Caplinger, T.E. & Wodarsk, J.S. (1983). The St. Louis Conundrum: The Effective Treatment of Antisocial Youths. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Fitness Canada (1987, September). National Recreation Statement. Ottawa, ON: Fitness Canada.

Gibson, P.M. (1979). Therapeutic aspects of wilderness programs: A comprehensive literature review. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 13 (2), 21-33.

Government of Alberta (1994). Toward 2000...The Provincial Youth Strategy. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Community Development Department.

Government of Canada (1994). Interim Report on Aboriginal Suicide: More Reasons to Live than Die (Preliminary draft). Ottawa, ON: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.

Government of Manitoba (1993, December). Summit on Youth Violence and Crime (pp.14-16). Winnipeg, MB.

Government of New Brunswick (1991, April). Report of the Interdepartmental Committee to Determine Service Needs of At-Risk Youth in New Brunswick. Fredericton, NB: Policy and Priorities Committee.

Government of New Brunswick (1992, January). Framework for Youth Services. Fredericton, NB: Interdepartmental Committee on Youth Services.

Government of Ontario (1994, May). Yours, Mine and Ours: Ontario's Children and Youth, PhaseI (pp.52-53). Ottawa, ON: Premier's Council on Health, Well-Being, and Social Justice.

Government of Saskatchewan (1993, June). Children First: An Invitation to Work Together. A summary report on Creating Saskatchewan's Action Plan for Children. Regina, SASK.

Government of Saskatchewan (1994, June). Saskatchewan's Action Plan for Children: One Year Later. Government of Saskatchewan progress report. Regina, SASK.

Greenwood, P.W. (1992). Substance abuse problems among high-risk youth and potential interventions. Crime and Delinquency, 38 (4), 444-458.

Hamilton, J.A. (1983). Development of interest and enjoyment in adolescence. Part II. Boredom and psychopathology. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 12 (5), 363-372.

Hastad, D.N., Segrave, J.O., Pangrazi, R. & Petersen, G. (1984). Youth sport participation and deviant behavior. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1, 366-373.

Health and Welfare Canada (1991). Substance use among Canadian youth. Health Promotion, 30 (2) (Fall), 1991.

Health and Community Services (1991, April). Report of the Interdepartmental Committee to Determine Service Needs of At-Risk Youth in New Brunswick. Fredericton, NB: Policy and Priorities Committee.

Herscovitch, A. (1992). Drug Dependence: From Recognition to Recovery. Toronto, ON.

Heyns, B. (1978). Summer Learning and the Effects of Schooling. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Holman, T.B. & Epperson, A. (1984). Family and leisure: a review of the literature with research recommendations. Journal of Leisure Research, 16 (4), 277-294.

Huff, G. & Collinson, F. (1987). Young offenders, gambling, and video game playing. British Journal of Criminology, 27 (4), 401-410.

Huff, C.R., ed. (1990). Gangs in america. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Hull, R.B. (1990). Mood as a product of leisure: Causes and consequences. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (2), 99-111.

Hunter, I.R. (1984). The impact of voluntary selection procedures on the reported success of outdoorrehabilitation programs. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 18 (3), 38-44.

Institute for Athletics & Education (1993). More than Sport Campaign (Sport Yukon). Whitehorse, YK: Yukon Community and Transportation Services.

Iso-Ahola, S.E. & Weissinger, E. (1987). Leisure and boredom. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5, 356-364.

Iso-Ahola, S.E. & Mobily, K. (1982). Depression and recreation involvement. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 14 (3), 48-53.

Iso-Ahola, S.E. & Weissinger, E. (1990). Perceptions of boredom in leisure: Conceptualization, reliability and validity of the leisure boredom scale. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (1), 1-17.

Iso-Ahola, S.E. & Crowely, E.D. (1991). Adolescent substance abuse and leisure boredom. Journal of Leisure Research, 23 (3), 260-271.

Iso-Ahola, S.E., LaVerde, D. & Graefe, A.R. (1988). Perceived competence as a mediator of the relationship between high risk sports participation and self-esteem. Journal of Leisure Research, 21 (1), 32-39.

Jones, M.B. & Offord, D.R. (1989). Reduction of antisocial behavior in poor children by nonschool skill-development. Journal of Child Psychology, 30, 737-750.

Jordan, C.R. (1991). Parks and recreation: More than fun and games. Benefits of Leisure (pp.365-368). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Kelly, F.J. & Baer, D.J. (1971). Physical challenge as a treatment for delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 17, 437-445.

King, A.J.C. & Coles, B. (1992). The Health of Canada's Youth. Ottawa, ON: National Health and Welfare.

Knapp, R.F. (1972). The playground and recreation association of America in World War I. Parks and Recreation, 17 (1), 27-31, 110-112.

Knowles, R.D. (1981). Handling depression through activity. American Journal of Nursing, June, 1187.

Kunstler, R. (1993). Serving the homeless through recreation programs. Parks and Recreation, 28 (8), 16,19-22,73.

Kunstler, R. (1991). There but for fortune: A therapeutic recreation perspective on the homeless in America. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 23 (2), 31-40.

Lafleur, B. (1992). Dropping Out: The Cost to Canada. Ottawa, ON: The Conference Board of Canada.

Landers, D.M. & Landers, D.M. (1978). Socialization via interscholastic athletics: Its effects on delinquency. Sociology of Education, 51 (October), 299-303.

Landers, D.M. & Petruzzello, S.J. (1994). Physical activity, fitness and anxiety. Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (pp.868-882). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Laub, J.H. & Sampson, R.J. (1988). Unraveling families and delinquency: A reanalysis of the Gluecks' data. Criminology, 26 (3), 355-380.

Leonard, T. (1993). Youth Court Statistics. Juristat Service Bulletin (Statistics Canada: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics), 13 (5), 1-14.

Lerman, P. (1991). Counting youth in trouble in institutions: Bringing the United States up to date. Crime and Delinquency, 37 (4), 465-480.

Lindsay, C., Devereaux, M.S. & Bergob, M. (1994). Youth in Canada, (second edition): Target groups project. Statistics Canada. Ottawa, ON: Housing, Family and Social Statistics Division.

Malkin, M.J. (1991). Cognitive evaluations of suicidal women: Implications for therapeutic recreation intervention. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 23 (1), 34-49.

Malkin, M.J., Howe, C.Z. & Del Rey, P. (1989). Psychological disability and leisure dysfunction of female suicidal psychiatric clients. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 21 (1), 36-46.

Marsh, H. (1990). The effects of participation in sport during the last two years of high school. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10.

Maughan, M. & Ellis, G.D. (1991). Effect of efficacy information during recreation participation on efficacy judgements of depressed adolescents. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 25 (1), 50-59.

McAuley, E. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (pp.551-568). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

McCord, J. (1991). Family relationships, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality. Criminology, 29 (3), 397-417.

McCrossin, S. (1993a, January). Youth in the 90s. Halifax, NS: Nova Scotia Youth Secretariat.

McCrossin, S. (1993b, November). Juvenile Justice and Youth Crime in Nova Scotia. Halifax, NS: Nova Scotia Youth Secretariat.

McDonald R.G. & Howe, C.Z. (1989). Challenge/initiative recreation programs as a treatment for low self-concept children. Journal of Leisure Research, 21, 242-253.

McFarland, E.M. (1970). The Development of Public Recreation in Canada. Ottawa, On: Canadian Parks/Recreation Association.

McGiboney, G.W. & Carter, C. (1988). Boredom proneness and adolescents' personalities. Psychological Reports, 63, 741-742.

McKay, S.L. (1994). A Review of the Effectiveness of Recreation Prevention and Intervention Efforts with At-Risk and Juvenile Delinquent Populations. Unpublished Master Thesis: Texas A&M University.

Mehrabian, A. & Riccioni, M. (1986). Measures of eating-related characteristics for the general population: Relationships with temperament. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50 (4), 610-629.

Melnick, M.J., Vanfossen, B.E. & Sabo, D.F. (1988). Developmental effects of athletic participation among high school girls. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5, 22-36.

Minister of State for Youth (1991). Youth: A National Stay-in-School Initiative. Ottawa, ON: Supply and Services.

Morrow, J.R. & Freedson, J.S. (1994). Relationship between habitual physical activity and aerobic fitness in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4), 315-347.

National Council of Women (1903). Minutes of the 1903 Annual General Meeting.

New Brunswick Youth Strategy (1989, April). Discussion Paper Canada - New Brunswick Youth Strategy. Fredericton, NB.

O'Brien, K.A. (1992). Effective programming for youth at-risk. The Voice (Summer), 16-17,47-48.

Orcutt, J.D. (1984). Contrasting effects of two kinds of boredom on alcohol use. Journal of Drug Issues, 14 (Winter), 161-173.

Orthner, D.K. & Mancini, J.A. (1990). Leisure impacts on family interaction and cohesion. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (2), 125-137.

Parington, J.T. (1977). Project Wild: A wilderness learning experience for high delinquency risk youth. Leisurability, 4 (2), 34-41.

Pate, R.R. & Shephard, R.J. (1989). Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Youth, Exercise and Sport (pp.1- 45). Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press.

Perdue, R. & Rainwater, A. (1984). Adolescent recreation and alcohol consumption. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 16 (2), 41-51.

Pizor, A.G. (1992). Preventing Delinquency: An Assessment of Park and Recreation Actions. Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association.

Polk, R., Frease, D. & Richmond, F.L. (1974). Social class, school experience, and delinquency. Criminology, 12, 84-94.

Rancourt, A.M. (1991). An exploration of the relationships among substance abuse, recreation, and leisure for women who abuse substances. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 23 (3), 9-18.

Rogers, Rix (1990). Reaching for Solutions: The Summary Report of the Special Advisor to the Minister of National Health and Welfare on Child Sexual Abuse in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Supply and Services.

Roggenbuck, J.W., Loomis, R.J. & Dagostino, J. (1990). The learning benefits of leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (2), 112-124.

Roundtree, G.A., Grenier, C.E. & Hoffman, V.L. (1993). Parental assessment of behavioral change after children's participation in a delinquency prevention program. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 19 (1/2), 113-130.

Rowland, T.W. (1990). Exercise and Children's Health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Russell, S.J., Hyndford, C. & Beaulieu, A. (1992). Active Living for Canadian Children and Youth: A Statistical Profile. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute.

Rutter, M. (1979). Protective Factors in Children's Responses to Stress and Disadvantage. Primary Prevention of Psychopathology. Volume III: Social Competence in Children. Hanover: University of New England Press.

Ryan, J.J. (1991). Breaking the circle of destruction. Parks and Recreation, 26 (3), 46-48,74.

Sallis, J.F., ed. (1994). Pediatric Exercise Science, 6 (4). Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Saskatchewan Municipal Government (1994, May). Youth at Risk Strategy. Regina, SASK: Recreation Branch.

Searle, M.S. & Brayley, R.E. (1992). Leisure Services in Canada: An Introduction. College, PA: Venture Publishing Inc.

Searle, M., Mactavish, J., Sdrolias, H., Brayley, L.A., Russell E., Winther, N. (1992, December). An Assessment of the Northern Recreation Director Pilot Project. The University of Manitoba, MB: Faculty of Physical Education & Recreation Studies.

Segrave, J.O., & Hastad, D.N. (1984). Interscholastic athletic participation and delinquent behavior: An empirical assessment of relevant variables. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1, 117-137.

Segrave, J., Moreau, C. & Hastad, D.N. (1985). An investigation into the relationship between ice hockey participation and delinquency. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2, 281-298.

Serok, S. & Blum, A. (1982). Rule-violating behaviour of delinquent and non-delinquent youth in games. Adolescence, 17 (66), 457-464.

Shephard, R. (1980). Long-term studies of physical activity in children - the Trois Rivieres experience. Children and Exercise IX. Baltimore, MD: Baltimore University Park Press.

Shephard, R, Lavallee, H., Rajic, M., Jequier, C., Beaucage, C. & Labarre, R. (1977). Influence of added activity classes upon the working capacity of Quebec schoolchildren. Frontiers of Physical Activity and Child Health (pp.237-246). Qubec, PQ: Editions Pelicans.

Shilts, L. (1991). The relationship of early adolescent substance use to extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes. Adolescence, 26 (103), 613-617.

Sides, E.G. (1992). Boredom, Anxiety, and Alcohol Consumption Among High Risk Adolescents. Unpublished Master's Thesis: University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

Sime, W.E. (1990). Discussion: Exercise, fitness, and mental health. Exercise, Fitness, and Health (pp.627-633). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Smith, E.A. & Caldwell, L.L. (1989). The perceived quality of leisure experiences among smoking and non-smoking adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9 (1/2), 153-162.

Smith, R.E. & Smoll, F.L. (1990). Self-esteem and children's reactions to youth sport coaching behaviors: A field study of self-enhancement processes. Developmental Psychology, 26 (6), 987-993.

Statistics Canada (1991). 1991 Aboriginal Peoples Survey. Ottawa, ON: Housing, Family, andSocial Statistics Division.

Statistics Canada (1992b). Causes of Death. Ottawa, ON: Health Statistics Division.

Statistics Canada (1992a). Youth Court Statistics. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics.

Stephens, T. & Craig, C.L. (1990). The Well-Being of Canadians. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute.

Stipp, H. & Milavsky, J.R. (1988). U.S. Television programming's effects on the aggressive behaviour of children and adolescents. Current Psychology: Research & Reviews, 7 (1), 76-92.

Stolowski, P.A. & Lee, R.G. (1991). The influence of social network ties on recreation and leisure: an exploratory study. Journal of Leisure Research, 23 (2), 95-113.

Strategies for Safer Communities in Prince Edward Island (1994, June). Prepared for Community and Correctional Services and the Community Safety and Crime Prevention Advisory Committee. Charlottetown, PEI.

Straub, W.F. & Felock, T. (1974). Attitudes toward physical activity of delinquent and non-delinquent junior high school age girls. The Research Quarterly, 45 (1), 21-27.

Sunter, D. (1993). Persons not in the labour force. The Labour Force (Statistics Canada), April, C2-C5.

Terre, L., Drabman, R.S., Meydrech, E.F. & Hsu, H.S. (1992). Relationship between peer status and health behaviours. Adolescence, 27 (107), 595-602.

Thomas, R.R., Landers, D.M., Salazar, W. & Etnier, J. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (pp.521-529). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Thorlindsson, T. (1989). Sport participation, smoking, and drug and alcohol use among icelandic youth. Sociology of Sport Journal, 6, 136-143.

Thurston, H.W. (1918). Delinquency and Spare Time: A Study of a Few Stories from the Court Records in Cleveland. Cleveland, OH: The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation.

Tremblay, M.S. (1994). The Effects of Training Status, Exercise Mode, and Exercise Duration on Endogenous Anabolic and Catabolic Steroid Hormones in Males. Unpublished Doctorial Thesis: University of Toronto.

Ulrich, R.S., Dimberg, U. & Driver, B. L. (1990). Psychophysiological indicators of leisureconsequences. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (2), 154-166.

VanHelder, W.P, Kofman, E. & Tremblay, M.S. (1991). Anabolic steroids in sport. Canadian Journal of Sport Science, 16 (4), 248-257.

Violas, P. (1978). The play movement. The Training of the Urban Working Class (pp. 67-92). Chicago. IL: Rand McNally.

Voorhis, P.V., Cullen, F.T., Mathers, R.A. & Garner, C.C. (1988). The impact of family structure and quality on delinquency: A comparative assessment of structural and functional factors. Criminology, 26 (2), 235-261.

Wadhera, S. & Strachan, J. (1991). Teenage pregnancies, Canada, 1975-1989. Health Reports (Statistics Canada), 3 (4), 327-347.

Wankel, L.M. & Berger, B.G. (1990). The psychological and social benefits of sport and physical activity. Journal of Leisure Research, 22 (2), 167-182.

Wankel, L.M. & Sefton, J.M. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (pp.530-554). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Warr, M. (1993). Age, peers, and delinquency. Criminology, 31 (1), 17-40.

Wasson, A.S. (1981). Susceptibility to boredom and deviant behavior at school. Psychological Reports, 48, 267-274.

Weiss, M.R. & Bredemeier, B.J.L. (1990). Moral development in Sport. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 18, 331-378.

Weissinger, E., Caldwell, L.L. & Bandalos, D.L. (1992). Relation between intrinsic motivation and boredom in leisure time. Leisure Sciences, 14, 317-325.

West, P.C. (1986). Social benefits of outdoor recreation: Sociological perspectives and implications for planning and policy (pp.93-103). A Literature Review: The President's Commission on American Outdoors. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Weyerer, S. (1992). Physical inactivity and depression in the community. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 13, 492-496.

Williams, M.H. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness and Health (pp.918-930). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Winther, N. & Currie, P. (1987, November). Northern Fly-In Camps: A Joint SportDevelopment/Crime Prevention Project. A paper presented at the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport Conference, Edmonton, AB.

Wolff, L. & Geissel, D. (1993). Street Prostitution in Canada. Juristat Service Bulletin (Statistics Canada: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics), 13 (4), 1-15.

Wolff, L. & Geissel, D. (1994). Street Prostitution in Canada. Canadian Social Trends (Statistics Canada), Summer, 18-22.

Wolfgang, M.E., Figlio, R.M. & Sellin, T. (1972). Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Wright, J.R. (1984). Urban Parks in Ontario, Part II: 1860-1914. Toronto, ON: Ministry of Tourism and Recreation.

Wright, A.N. (1983). Therapeutic potential of the outward bound process: An evaluation of a treatment program for juvenile delinquents. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 15 (2), 33-42.

10. APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

APPENDIX B: FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS CHARACTERISTICS

APPENDIX C: FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT SUMMARY

APPENDIX D: SAMPLE OF QUESTIONS DISCUSSED AT FOCUS GROUP MEETINGS

APPENDIX E:POTENTIAL PARTNERS FOR NETWORKINGAPPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ABORIGINALsynonymous with Native

ACTIVE LIVINGis a way of life in which physical activity is valued and integrated into one's daily routine

DELINQUENCYthose actions which conflict with the laws of society

DELINQUENTused to refer to youth who have been adjudicated for criminal activity

DEVIANCEthose actions which conflict with society's norms

DEVIANTan individual whose behaviours diverge or digress from normal behaviour

EXERCISEactivity performed on a repeated basis over an extended period of time with a specific external objective such as the improvement of fitness, physical performance or health

FIRST NATIONsynonymous with Native and Aboriginal

FITNESSa set of attributes that relate to the ability of people to perform a given task in a specified physical, social, and psychological environment

HOLISTICrefers to the interdisciplinary approach that must be taken to address the complex needs of an individual (youth); highlighting the fact that no one agency can solve the problems alone and that all youth-related agencies must work together to address the multitude of issues facing youth

LEISURErefers to any activity that an individual chooses to do during their discretionary or "free" time

NATIVErefers to the ethnic group who inhabited the country prior to the immigration of the Europeans

PHYSICAL ACTIVITYany body movement produced by the skeletal muscles that results in a substantial increase over the resting energy expenditure

RECREATIONall those things that a person or group chooses to do in order to make their leisure time more interesting, more enjoyable, and more personally satisfying

SPORTa form of physical activity that involves competition

WELLNESSrefers to the physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual well-being of an individual

YOUTH-AT-RISKdescribed as a continuum ranging from low risk to chronic deviance

APPENDIX B

FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS

(this is a copy of what was sent to each provincial host)

The specific characteristics of the participants required for the focus groups in each province are listed below. For the focus group meetings, youth are limited to those 14-18 years of age. Please try to arrange for a heterogeneous group of participants (ie. a combination of the examples given for each group). It should also be noted that the provincial representatives are not expected to participate in the focus group meetings themselves.

Policy Makers and Administrators

This group should include decision makers and administrators of organizations who are currently involved, directly or indirectly, with youth. For this focus group a mixture of social, recreational, and judicial professionals would be desirable, such as:

-City Councillors, Band Council Members, School Board Members;

-Judges, Chief of Police, Crown Prosecutors;

-Recreation Directors, Directors of Youth Clubs, Presidents and Executive Directors of Sport and Recreation Associations;

-Private Agency Administrators (John Howard Society, Boys and Girls Club, YM/YWCA, etc.);

-Government Officials involved in administering, funding, or overseeing programs related to Youth (particularly in the area of physical activity / recreation), Provincial / Territorial Youth Secretariats;

-High School Principals;

Front-line Workers

This group must be involved with, or in contact with, youth in their day-to-day work and activities. Examples include:

-Youth Counsellors, Social Workers, School Teachers;

-Probation and Parole Officers, Police Officers;

-Recreation Workers, Physical Education Teachers;

-Sport Coaches, Recreation Leaders, Volunteers;

-Clergy;

-Public Health Nurses, Nutritionists, Planned Parenthood Officials, Doctors, Psychologists;

-Youth Workers with Private Agencies; etc.

YOUTH

a) Youth-at-risk

This group includes youth who have NOT been labelled by the education and judicial system as being deviant, yet are "at risk" because certain predisposing variables are present. These youth (14-18 years of age) can be characterized as being exposed to factors known to be associated with social deviance. For example, living in a high-crime or low income area, or living with a single parent or in dysfunctional families (i.e., divorced, substance abuse history, parents/siblings with criminal records, members of family have attempted or committed suicide, etc.). These youth can be recruited in such places as:

-Junior and Senior High School;

-Boys and Girls Clubs, YM/YWCA, Municipal Recreation Programs;

-Student Employment Centres, Youth Access Centres;

-Big Brother and Big Sister Organizations;

-Youth Secretariats;

b) Youth Already Exhibiting Deviant Behaviour

Youth advance along the at-risk continuum when they engage in, or exhibit, deviant behaviour such as substance abuse, promiscuity, dropping out of school, running away from home, gang involvement, unlawful activity, cuffing school, D grade average or lower, and/or involved with the "party crowd". These behaviours represent the next level of risk; one step beyond the predisposing factors which are present in the at-risk stage. Deviant behaviours are those which conflict with society's norms. At this stage on the continuum, the actions have not been identified by social agents (ie.; education system, justice system, health and community services, etc.), therefore the youth have not been labelled as deviant, and intervention attempts have not been initiated. These youth (ages 14-18) may be identified through:

-School Guidance Counsellors and their school authority;

-Parent Support Groups (available through Health and Community services usually); Social Service Agencies;

-Child Find Organizations;

-Recreation Agencies running special programs (ie. Boys and Girls Clubs, YM/YWCA)

c) Persons in Need of Supervision (PINS)

This group includes youth (14-18 years of age) who have entered the established social system as a result of complaints by parents, health or school authorities, or through arrest for less seriouscrimes. These youth have been labelled as in need of supervision and/or some intervention. They are characterized as youth who have conduct problems at home or in school, or by running away from home, depression, chronic truancy, vandalism, etc. These youth can be recruited in such places as:

-Foster Homes;

-Young Offender Institutions;

-Drug and Alcohol Residents (Alcoholics Anonymous/Narcotics Anonymous);

-Social Service Agencies; Group Homes;

-Recreation Agencies running special programs (ie. Boys and Girls Clubs, YM/YWCA)

PARENTS

a) Parents of Youth-at-Risk

This focus group is comprised of the parents or guardians of the youth-at-risk group (a). This group will need to be recruited through the assistance of local school authorities and the administration of the other youth serving agencies listed above.

b) Parents of Youth Already Exhibiting Deviant Behaviour

This focus group is comprised of the parents or guardians of the youth described in (b). Difficulties might be encountered to persuade these parents to participate depending on the individual situation. Personal contact might be required to persuade them of the importance of their input in the focus group process.

c) Parents of PINS

This focus group is comprised of the parents or guardians of the PINS group (c). Difficulties might be encountered to persuade these parents to participate depending on the individual situation. Personal contact might be required to persuade them of the importance of their input in the focus group process.APPENDIX C

FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT SUMMARY

POLICY MAKERS/ADMINISTRATORS

NUMBER OF FOCUS GROUPS = 16

TOTAL PARTICIPANTS = 109 (50 FEMALE, 59 MALE)

NATIVE PARTICIPANTS = 10

Organizations Represented

Municipal Recreation Departments

High School Administration

School Board

Police

Youth Secretariats

Provincial Government (Recreation Department)

YM/YWCA

Boys & Girls Club

Boy Scouts

Hospital Administration

Provincial Government (Social Services)

University Professor

Municipal Council

Mayor

City Clerk

Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA)

Retired Senior

Provincial Recreation Association

Federal Justice Department

Assistant Deputy Minister for Recreation

Youth Detention Centre

John Howard Society

Native Centre

Drug Addiction Services

Probation Office

Young Offenders Program

Religious Organizations

FRONTLINE WORKERS

NUMBER OF FOCUS GROUPS = 16

TOTAL PARTICIPANTS = 109 (48 FEMALE, 61 MALE)

NATIVE PARTICIPANTS = 24

Organizations Represented

Catholic Church - priest

RCMP

Regional Police - crime prevention officers

Child Find

Municipal Recreation - programmers

Corrections Canada

School Board - junior high youth counsellors

School Board - high school youth counsellors

YMCA - program directors & program staff

volunteer community coaches

Addiction Foundation workers

Public Health nurse

AIDS awareness and sex educators

Big Brothers/Big Sisters

Boys & Girls Clubs

Provincial Government - aboriginal youth recreation programmer

Social Workers - public and private

Cultural awareness worker - municipal government

Youth worker - municipal government

Probation Officers

"Alternate" school teachers

CONAYT Friendship Society worker

Mental health professional

City counsellor

Native youth counsellor

Parents

Karate instructor

Outdoor adventure guide

Protestant Church - minister

Church youth leader

Friendship Centre volunteers

School teacher

Provincial sport governing body - program director

Children's Aid Society

PARENTS

NUMBER OF FOCUS GROUPS = 16

TOTAL PARTICIPANTS = 66 (50 FEMALE, 16 MALE)

NATIVE PARTICIPANTS = 19

YOUTH

NUMBER OF FOCUS GROUPS = 16

TOTAL PARTICIPANTS = 181 (78 FEMALE, 103 MALE)

NATIVE PARTICIPANTS = 36

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE OF QUESTIONS DISCUSSED AT FOCUS GROUP MEETINGS

POLICY MAKERS/ADMINISTRATORS FOCUS GROUPS

*Introduction

*What does the term youth-at-risk mean?

*What does the term recreation mean?

*What are the benefits of physical activity/recreation?

*What do youth like/want?

*What do youth dislike with respect to physical activity/recreation?

*Can physical activity/recreation function as a prevention, or intervention strategy?

*What are the constraints facing youth in the area of physical activity/recreation?

*What are the constraints facing organizations like yours?

*What do youth-at-risk think of your agency?

*What are the problem areas in providing physical activity/recreation to youth-at-risk?

*What are your current programs/services in this area?

*What are key success variables?

*What recommendations do you have?

*Who should start this process, who's the leader?

*Who should do it?

*What is the role of Governments?

*Evaluation of focus groupFRONTLINE WORKERS FOCUS GROUPS

*Introduction

*Define Youth-at-Risk (Concept)

*Define Physical Activity/Recreation (Concept)

*What is Recreation/Physical Activity's role in the prevention and intervention for youth-at-risk? (impacts, benefits, etc)

*What are you doing well in the area of youth-at-risk and physical activity/recreation? Why is it successful? What can be done to improve its success?

*What are you not doing well? Why didn't the initiative work? What can be done to make the unsuccessful, successful?

*What policies exist to address the youth-at-risk issue?

*What are the needs of the youth?

*What are the constraints faced by youth?

*What are the constraints faced by agencies in dealing with youth-at-risk?

*What opportunities in the external environment exist in dealing with youth-at-risk issues? (linkages, funding, etc.)

*What should be done first and by whom?

*If you were in charge, what would be your top three priorities for action?

*Evaluation of focus group

YOUTH FOCUS GROUPS

*Introduction

*What do you do in your free time? (How often, with who, when, why do you enjoy doing it?)

*If these activities weren't available, what do you think would happen? How would you feel?

*What do members of your family like to do in their free time? Do you do any activities together? Have they always taken part/not taken part?

*Have you ever participated in an organized recreation program (What does this term mean?) (When? Still participate? Who got you involved? Why did you stop? Why did you never take part?).

*What attracted you/would attract you to these types of programs?

*If you were talking to a friend, trying to convince them to take part, what would you say?

*If you could develop a facility for the youth of this area, you have all the money and land you want, what would be included in your facility? What rules would you impose and how would you enforce the rules? What problems do you think your facility would encounter?

*What is most important in your life right now? What are your needs?

*What is being done in your community to meet these needs and address what is most important to you? How does recreation fit into this?

*When you hear the term Youth-at-Risk, what comes to mind? What do you think about someone being labelled as a youth at risk?

*What do you think should be done in dealing with so called "youth-at-risk"? You are in charge and you can do three things to address the needs of the youth in this area, what would they be?

Evaluation of focus groups:

*What did you think of the focus group? Was it what you expected? How was it different? What would make it a better experience?

PARENTS FOCUS GROUPS

*Introduction

*When you hear the word "Youth-at-Risk", what images come to mind?

*When you hear the terms "Recreation and Physical Activity", what comes to mind?

*What do your children do in their spare time?

*What do you and your family do for physical activity/recreation?

*What constraints to physical activity/recreation are families facing?

*What are the community barriers to physical activity/recreation?

*What can recreation/physical activity do for your child?

*What are the constraints faced by youth-at-risk in this area?

*What is the role of the school system, community services, etc?

*What is the role of recreation departments?

*What are the "success stories" in your community for youth-at-risk?

*What recommendations would you give to position recreation/physical activity as a prevention/intervention for youth-at-risk? If you were in charge, what three things would you do?

*Evaluation of focus groupAPPENDIX E

POTENTIAL PARTNERS FOR NETWORKING

(it is recognized that this is not a complete listing)

GOVERNMENTAL

Department of Education

Universities

Health & Community Services

Department of Justice

Department of the Solicitor General

Fitness Canada

Sport Canada

Health and Welfare Canada

Provincial Departments whose mandate includes recreation, sport, youth

Youth Secretariats

Municipal Recreation/Community Services Departments

Department of Housing

RCMP

Police Departments

NATIONAL/PROVINCIAL ASSOCIATIONS

Canadian Parks and Recreation Association

Interprovincial Sport and Recreation Council

Canadian Council on Youth

Provincial Parks & Recreation Associations

ParticipAction

Active Living Collective

National/Provincial Sport Associations

National Coaching Certification Program

Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport

Provincial Associations responsible for fitness leadership

LOCAL

Emergency Shelters

Food & Clothing Bank

Salvation Army

Self-Help Groups (ie. Survivors of Suicide)

Rape Crisis Centres

Detoxification Centres

Planned Parenthood

Family Enrichment & Counselling Service

Alcoholics Anonymous

Al-A-Teen

Big Brothers/Big Sisters

Child Find

Churches

Junior Achievement

Access Centre

Non-profit Youth Drop-in Centres

Boys & Girls Club

YM-YWCA

Girl Guides/Boy Scouts

Youth Councils

John Howard Society

City Transit

Taxi Companies

Local Business/Malls

Group Homes

Community Service Clubs (Kiwanis, Lions, Shriners, Rotary, Knights of Columbus, etc.)

Probation Officers

Social Workers

School Guidance Counsellors

CULTURAL

Aboriginal Peoples Council

Native Friendship Centres

Multicultural Associations